Illumination devices for inducing biological effects

ABSTRACT

Illumination devices for impinging light on tissue, for example within a body cavity of a patient, to induce various biological effects are disclosed. Biological effects may include at least one of inactivating and/or inhibiting growth of one or more pathogens, upregulating a local immune response, increasing endogenous stores of nitric oxide, releasing nitric oxide from endogenous stores, and inducing an anti-inflammatory effect. Wavelengths of light are selected based on intended biological effects for one or more of targeted tissue types and targeted pathogens. Light treatments may provide multiple pathogenic biological effects, either with light of a single wavelength or with light having multiple wavelengths. Devices for light treatments are disclosed that provide light doses for inducing biological effects on various targeted pathogens and tissues with increased efficacy and reduced cytotoxicity. Particular illumination devices are disclosed that provide safe and effective treatments for upper respiratory tract infections, including coronaviridae and orthomyxoviridae.

STATEMENT OF RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of provisional patent applicationSer. No. 63/123,631, filed Dec. 10, 2020, the disclosure of which ishereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

This application claims the benefit of provisional patent applicationSer. No. 63/075,010, filed Sep. 4, 2020, the disclosure of which ishereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

This application claims the benefit of provisional patent applicationSer. No. 63/074,970, filed Sep. 4, 2020, the disclosure of which ishereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

This application claims the benefit of provisional patent applicationSer. No. 63/065,357, filed Aug. 13, 2020, the disclosure of which ishereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

This application claims the benefit of provisional patent applicationSer. No. 62/991,903, filed Mar. 19, 2020, the disclosure of which ishereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present disclosed subject matter relates generally to devices andmethods for impinging light on tissue (e.g., phototherapy or lighttherapy) to induce one or more biological effects. Additionally,disclosed are methods and devices for delivering light as a therapeutictreatment for tissue that comes into contact with or is infected bypathogens.

BACKGROUND

Viral infections pose a great challenge to human health, particularlyrespiratory tract infections of the Orthomyxoviridae (e.g. influenza)and Coronaviridae (e.g. SARS-CoV-2) families. Additionally, DNA virusincluding the Papovaviridae family (e.g. human papillomavirus (HPV))have extremely wide prevalence that result in low risk papillomas of theskin and high risk papillomas of mucosal epithelial tissue. Infection bythe human papillomavirus (HPV) is currently the most common sexuallytransmitted disease (STD).

Various light therapies (e.g., including low level light therapy (LLLT)and photodynamic therapy (PDT)) have been publicly reported or claimedto provide various health related medical benefits—including, but notlimited to: promoting hair growth; treatment of skin or tissueinflammation; promoting tissue or skin healing or rejuvenation;enhancing wound healing; pain management; reduction of wrinkles, scars,stretch marks, varicose veins, and spider veins; treating cardiovasculardisease; treating erectile dysfunction; treating microbial infections;treating hyperbilirubinemia; and treating various oncological andnon-oncological diseases or disorders.

Various mechanisms by which phototherapy has been suggested to providetherapeutic benefits include: increasing circulation (e.g., byincreasing formation of new capillaries); stimulating the production ofcollagen; stimulating the release of adenosine triphosphate (ATP);enhancing porphyrin production; reducing excitability of nervous systemtissues; modulating fibroblast activity; increasing phagocytosis;inducing thermal effects; stimulating tissue granulation and connectivetissue projections; reducing inflammation; and stimulating acetylcholinerelease.

Phototherapy has also been suggested to stimulate cells to generatenitric oxide. Various biological functions attributed to nitric oxideinclude roles as signaling messenger, cytotoxin, antiapoptotic agent,antioxidant, and regulator of microcirculation. Nitric oxide isrecognized to relax vascular smooth muscles, dilate blood vessels,inhibit aggregation of platelets, and modulate T cell-mediate immuneresponse.

Nitric oxide is produced by multiple cell types in tissue, and is formedby the conversion of the amino acid L-arginine to L-citrulline andnitric oxide, mediated by the enzymatic action of nitric oxide synthases(NOSs). NOS is a NADPH-dependent enzyme that catalyzes the followingreaction:L-arginine+3/2 NADPH+H⁺+2O₂⇄citrulline+nitric oxide+3/2 NADP⁺

In mammals, three distinct genes encode NOS isozymes: neuronal (nNOS orNOS-I), cytokine-inducible (iNOS or NOS-II), and endothelial (eNOS orNOS-III). iNOS and nNOS are soluble and found predominantly in thecytosol, while eNOS is membrane associated. Many cells in mammalssynthesize iNOS in response to inflammatory conditions.

Skin has been documented to upregulate inducible nitric oxide synthaseexpression and subsequent production of nitric oxide in response toirradiation stress. Nitric oxide serves a predominantly anti-oxidantrole in the high levels generated in response to radiation.

Nitric oxide is a free radical capable of diffusing across membranes andinto various tissues; however, it is very reactive, with a half-life ofonly a few seconds. Due to its unstable nature, nitric oxide rapidlyreacts with other molecules to form more stable products. For example,in the blood, nitric oxide rapidly oxidizes to nitrite, and is thenfurther oxidized with oxyhaemoglobin to produce nitrate. Nitric oxidealso reacts directly with oxyhaemoglobin to produce methaemoglobin andnitrate. Nitric oxide is also endogenously stored on a variety ofnitrosated biochemical structures including nitrosoglutathione (GSNO),nitrosoalbumin, nitrosohemoglobin, and a large number of nitrosocysteineresidues on other critical blood/tissue proteins. The term “nitroso” isdefined as a nitrosated compound (nitrosothiols (RSNO) or nitrosamines(RNNO)), via either S- or N-nitrosation. Examples of nitrosatedcompounds include GSNO, nitrosoalbumin, nitrosohemoglobin, and proteinswith nitrosated cysteine residue. Metal nitrosyl (M-NO) complexes areanother endogenous store of circulating nitric oxide, most commonlyfound as ferrous nitrosyl complexes in the body; however, metal nitrosylcomplexes are not restricted to complexes with iron-containing metalcenters, since nitrosation also occurs at heme groups and coppercenters. Examples of metal nitrosyl complexes include cytochrome coxidase (CCO-NO) (exhibiting 2 heme and 2 copper binding sites),cytochrome c (exhibiting heme center binding), and nitrosylhemoglobin(exhibiting heme center binding for hemoglobin and methemoglobin),embodying endogenous stores of nitric oxide.

SUMMARY

Aspects of the present disclosure relate to devices and methods forimpinging light on a tissue, for example within a mammalian body and/ora body cavity of a patient, where the light may include at least onecharacteristic that exerts or induces at least one biological effectwithin or on the tissue. Biological effects may include at least one ofinactivating and inhibiting growth of one or more combinations ofmicroorganisms and pathogens, including but not limited to viruses,bacteria, fungi, and other microbes, among others. Biological effectsmay also include one or more of upregulating a local immune response,stimulating enzymatic generation of nitric oxide to increase endogenousstores of nitric oxide, releasing nitric oxide from endogenous stores ofnitric oxide, and inducing an anti-inflammatory effect. Wavelengths oflight may be selected based on at least one intended biological effectfor one or more of the targeted tissue and the targeted microorganismsor pathogens. In certain aspects, wavelengths of light may includevisible light in any number of wavelength ranges based on the intendedbiological effect. Further aspects involve light impingement on tissuefor multiple microorganisms and/or multiple pathogenic biologicaleffects, either with light of a single peak wavelength or a combinationof light with more than one peak wavelength. Devices and methods forlight treatments are disclosed that provide light doses for inducingbiological effects on various targeted pathogens and targeted tissueswith increased efficacy and reduced cytotoxicity. Light doses mayinclude various combinations of irradiances, wavelengths, and exposuretimes, and such light doses may be administered continuously ordiscontinuously with a number of pulsed exposures.

Because of the relative costs, both economically and on the health andwell-being of patients, new treatments to inhibit or eradicate viralinfections in tissues, particularly the mucosal epithelial surfaces likethe cervix, mouth, nose, throat and anus, are greatly needed. Suchtreatments and devices therefore are provided for herein.

Phototherapy has attracted significant attention as a therapeutictreatment for various maladies and conditions. Devices for deliveringphototherapy to inhibit or eradicate viral infections and methods ofusing the same are disclosed herein. Irradiances of light represented inmilliwatts per centimeter squared (mW/cm²) have been proposed at aspecific wavelength for a threshold time over a given duration to yieldtherapeutic dosages represented in joules per centimeter squared (J/cm²)which are effective for inactivating virus or treating viral infectionswhile maintaining the viability of epithelial tissues. These treatmentscan be tailored to the particular tissue being treated, as well as tothe various fluids in the media, such as blood, sputum, saliva, cervicalfluid, and mucous. The total dosage (J/cm²) to treat an infection can bespread out over multiple administrations, with each dose applied overseconds or minutes, and with multiple doses over days or weeks, atindividual doses that treat the infection while minimizing damage to theparticular tissue.

In one aspect, an illumination device comprises: at least one lightsource arranged to irradiate light on tissue within a body cavity, thelight configured to induce a biological effect, the biological effectcomprising at least one of altering a concentration of one or morepathogens within the body cavity and altering growth of the one or morepathogens within the body cavity; a light guide configured to receivethe light from the at least one light source; and a light guidepositioner that is configured to secure the light guide for providingthe light to the tissue within the body cavity. In certain embodiments,the biological effect comprises both altering the concentration of theone or more pathogens within the body cavity and altering the growth ofthe one or more pathogens within the body cavity. In certainembodiments, the one or more pathogens comprise at least one of a virus,a bacteria, and a fungus. In certain embodiments, the one or morepathogens comprise coronaviridae. In certain embodiments, thecoronaviridae comprises SARS-CoV-2. In certain embodiments, thebiological effect further comprises at least one of upregulating a localimmune response within the body cavity, stimulating at least one ofenzymatic generation of nitric oxide to increase endogenous stores ofnitric oxide, and releasing nitric oxide from endogenous stores ofnitric oxide. In certain embodiments, the biological effect comprisesinactivating the one or more pathogens that are in a cell-freeenvironment in the body cavity. In certain embodiments, the biologicaleffect comprises inhibiting replication of the one or more pathogensthat are in a cell-associated environment in the body cavity.

In certain embodiments, the light guide positioner comprises amouthpiece that is configured to engage with one or more surfaces of anoral cavity of a user. In certain embodiments, the mouthpiece comprisesone or more bite guards for protecting and securing the light guide. Incertain embodiments, the illumination device further comprises a tonguedepressor that is configured to depress the user's tongue for providingthe light to the oropharynx. In certain embodiments, the tonguedepressor is formed by a portion of the light guide. In certainembodiments, the illumination device further comprises a housing thatincludes the at least one light source and wherein the light guide andthe light guide positioner are configured to be removably attached tothe housing. In certain embodiments, the illumination device furthercomprises a port that is configured to at least one of charge theillumination device and access data that is stored in the illuminationdevice.

In certain embodiments, the light includes a first light characteristiccomprising a peak wavelength in a range of 410 nanometers (nm) to 440nm. In certain embodiments, irradiating the light on the tissue withinthe body cavity comprises administering a dose of light in a range from0.5 joules per square centimeter (J/cm²) to 100 J/cm². In certainembodiments, irradiating the light on the tissue within the body cavitycomprises administering a dose of light with a light therapeutic indexin a range from 2 to 250, the light therapeutic index being defined as adose concentration that reduces tissue viability by 25% divided by adose concentration that reduces cellular percentage of the one or morepathogens by 50%.

In another aspect, an illumination device comprises: at least one lightsource arranged to irradiate light on tissue of an oropharynx of a userto induce a biological effect, the biological effect comprising at leastone of altering a concentration of one or more pathogens and alteringgrowth of the one or more pathogens; and a mouthpiece that is configuredto engage with one or more surfaces of an oral cavity of the user toprovide the light to the oropharynx. In certain embodiments, thebiological effect comprises altering the concentration of the one ormore pathogens and altering the growth of the one or more pathogens. Incertain embodiments, the one or more pathogens comprise at least one ofa virus, a bacteria, and a fungus. In certain embodiments, the one ormore pathogens comprise coronaviridae. In certain embodiments, thecoronaviridae comprises SARS-CoV-2.

In certain embodiments, the biological effect further comprises at leastone of upregulating a local immune response, stimulating at least one ofenzymatic generation of nitric oxide to increase endogenous stores ofnitric oxide, and releasing nitric oxide from endogenous stores ofnitric oxide. In certain embodiments, the mouthpiece is configured toexpand the oral cavity of the user. In certain embodiments, theillumination device further comprises a light guide that is configuredto receive the light from the at least one light source. In certainembodiments, the mouthpiece is configured to be removably attached tothe light guide. In certain embodiments, the mouthpiece comprises one ormore bite guards for protecting and securing the light guide. In certainembodiments, a portion of the light guide forms a tongue depressor thatis configured to depress the user's tongue for providing the light tothe oropharynx. In certain embodiments, the light comprises a peakwavelength is a range from 410 nm to 440 nm and irradiating the light onthe tissue of the oropharynx comprises administering a dose of light ina range from 0.5 J/cm² to 100 J/cm². In certain embodiments, the one ormore pathogens comprise coronaviridae and irradiating the light on thetissue of the oropharynx comprises administering a dose of light with alight therapeutic index in a range from 2 to 250, the light therapeuticindex being defined as a dose concentration that reduces tissueviability by 25% divided by a dose concentration that reduces cellularpercentage of the one or more pathogens by 50%.

In another aspect, any of the foregoing aspects, and/or various separateaspects and features as described herein, may be combined for additionaladvantage. Any of the various features and elements as disclosed hereinmay be combined with one or more other disclosed features and elementsunless indicated to the contrary herein.

Those skilled in the art will appreciate the scope of the presentdisclosure and realize additional aspects thereof after reading thefollowing detailed description of the preferred embodiments inassociation with the accompanying drawing figures.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

The accompanying drawing figures incorporated in and forming a part ofthis specification illustrate several aspects of the disclosure, andtogether with the description serve to explain the principles of thedisclosure.

FIG. 1 is a block diagram of an exemplary illumination device forincreasing concentrations of unbound nitric oxide within living tissue,according to some embodiments.

FIG. 2 is another block diagram of the exemplary illumination device ofFIG. 1, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 3 is a spectral diagram showing intensity versus wavelength forexemplary nitric-oxide modulating light, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 4 is a spectral diagram showing intensity versus wavelength forexemplary endogenous-store increasing light and exemplaryendogenous-store releasing light, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 5A is a reaction sequence showing photoactivated production ofnitric oxide (NO) catalyzed by iNOS, followed by binding of NO to CCO.

FIG. 5B is an illustration showing how arginine reacts with oxygen andNADPH, in the presence of NOS1/nNOS, NOS2/iNOS, and NOS3/eNOS, torelease unbound nitric oxide, reduce the NADPH to NADP, and convertarginine to citrulline.

FIG. 5C is a chart showing the enzymatic generation of nitric oxide (inkeratinocytes), in terms of % cells expressing iNOS, when exposed tovarious wavelengths of light, 24 hours after exposure of thekeratinocytes to 10 minutes of irradiation.

FIG. 6A is a chart showing the release of nitric oxide (μmoles/second)vs. time (minutes) from the photoacceptor GSNO, upon exposure to blue,green, and red wavelengths.

FIG. 6B is an illustration showing the attachment of nitric oxide to thephotoacceptor CCO to form the complex CCO-NO, and the subsequent releaseof NO from this complex upon exposure to endogenous-store releasinglight.

FIG. 7 is another block diagram of the exemplary illumination device ofFIG. 1, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 8 is a spectral diagram showing intensity versus wavelength for theexemplary nitric-oxide modulating light illustrated in FIG. 7, accordingto some embodiments.

FIG. 9 is another block diagram of the exemplary illumination device ofFIG. 1 including additional light emitter(s), according to someembodiments.

FIG. 10 is another block diagram of the exemplary illumination device ofFIG. 1 including a camera sensor, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 11 is another block diagram of the exemplary illumination device ofFIG. 1 including additional light emitter(s) and a camera sensor,according to some embodiments.

FIG. 12 is another block diagram of the exemplary illumination device ofFIG. 1 sized to substantially fit within a body cavity, according tosome embodiments.

FIG. 13 is another block diagram of the exemplary illumination device ofFIG. 1 including a light guide for directing nitric-oxide modulatinglight into a body cavity, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 14 is a side view of an exemplary handheld configuration of theexemplary illumination device of FIG. 13, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 15 is a front view of the exemplary handheld configuration of FIG.14, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 16 is a side view of an exemplary handheld configuration of theexemplary illumination device of FIG. 13, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 17 is a perspective view of various components of the exemplaryhandheld configuration of FIG. 16, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 18 is a front view of the exemplary handheld configuration of FIG.16, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 19 is a perspective view of an exemplary handheld configuration ofthe exemplary illumination device of FIG. 13, according to someembodiments.

FIG. 20 is a partially transparent view of an exemplary handheldconfiguration of the exemplary illumination device of FIG. 13, accordingto some embodiments.

FIG. 21A is a schematic elevation view of at least a portion of anexemplary illumination device for delivering nitric-oxide modulatinglight to tissue in an internal cavity of a patient, according to oneembodiment.

FIG. 21B is a schematic elevation view of at least a portion of a lightemitting device including a concave light emitting surface fordelivering nitric-oxide modulating light to cervical tissue of apatient, according to one embodiment.

FIG. 21C illustrates the device of FIG. 21B inserted into a vaginalcavity to deliver nitric-oxide modulating light to cervical tissue of apatient.

FIG. 21D is a schematic elevation view of at least a portion of a lightemitting device including a probe-defining light emitting surface fordelivering nitric-oxide modulating light to cervical tissue of a patientaccording to another embodiment.

FIG. 21E illustrates the device of FIG. 21D inserted into a vaginalcavity, with a probe portion of the light-emitting surface inserted intoa cervical opening, to deliver nitric-oxide modulating light to cervicaltissue of a patient.

FIG. 22A is a perspective view of an exemplary straight light guide,according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 22B is a perspective view of an exemplary bent light guide,according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 23A is a side view of an exemplary straight light guide, accordingto at least one embodiment.

FIG. 23B is a side view of an exemplary bent light guide, according toat least one embodiment.

FIG. 23C is a side view of an exemplary tapered light guide, accordingto at least one embodiment.

FIG. 23D is a side view of an exemplary up-tapered light guide,according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 23E is a side view of an exemplary bent light guide having a90-degree bend, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 24A is a side view of an exemplary bent light guide having multiplebends, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 24B is a side view of an exemplary bulbous light guide, accordingto at least one embodiment.

FIG. 24C is a side view of an exemplary curved light guide, according toat least one embodiment.

FIG. 25A is a side view of an exemplary tapered light guide, accordingto at least one embodiment.

FIG. 25B is a front view of the exemplary tapered light guide of FIG.25A, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 25C is a top view of the exemplary tapered light guide of FIG. 25A,according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 26A is a side view of an exemplary split light guide, according toat least one embodiment.

FIG. 26B is a front view of the exemplary split light guide of FIG. 26A,according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 26C is a top view of the exemplary split light guide of FIG. 26A,according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 27A is a perspective view of an exemplary light guide having acircular cross-sectional area and circular faces, according to at leastone embodiment.

FIG. 27B is a perspective view of an exemplary light guide having ahexagonal cross-sectional area and hexagonal faces, according to atleast one embodiment.

FIG. 27C is a perspective view of an exemplary light guide having anelliptical cross-sectional area and elliptical faces, according to atleast one embodiment.

FIG. 27D is a perspective view of an exemplary light guide having arectangular cross-sectional area and rectangular faces, according to atleast one embodiment.

FIG. 27E is a perspective view of an exemplary light guide having apentagonal cross-sectional area and pentagonal faces, according to atleast one embodiment.

FIG. 27F is a perspective view of an exemplary light guide having anoctagonal cross-sectional area and octagonal faces, according to atleast one embodiment.

FIG. 27G is a perspective view of an exemplary light guide having anoval cross-sectional area and oval faces, according to at least oneembodiment.

FIG. 27H is a perspective view of an exemplary light guide having atriangular cross-sectional area and triangular faces, according to atleast one embodiment.

FIG. 27I is a perspective view of an exemplary light guide having asemicircular cross-sectional area and semicircular faces, according toat least one embodiment.

FIG. 27J is a perspective view of an exemplary light guide havingdifferently shaped cross-sectional areas and faces, according to atleast one embodiment.

FIG. 28A is a side view of an exemplary light guide having similarfaces, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 28B is a side view of an exemplary light guide having dissimilarfaces, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 28C is a side view of an exemplary light guide having anirregularly shaped face, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 28D is a side view of an exemplary light guide having a conicalface, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 28E is a side view of an exemplary light guide having amultifaceted face, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 28F is a side view of an exemplary light guide having a flat face,according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 28G is a side view of an exemplary light guide having a convexface, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 28H is a side view of an exemplary light guide having a concaveface, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 28I is a side view of an exemplary light guide having a roundedface, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 28J is a side view of an exemplary light guide having a chamferedface, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 28K is a side view of an exemplary light guide having an angledface, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 29A is another perspective view of an exemplary light guide havinga circular cross-sectional area and circular faces, according to atleast one embodiment.

FIG. 29B is a cross-sectional view of the light guide of FIG. 29A havingan uncladded core, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 29C is a perspective view of an exemplary light guide having asquare cross-sectional area and square faces, according to at least oneembodiment.

FIG. 29D is a cross-sectional view of the light guide of FIG. 29C havingan uncladded core.

FIG. 29E is a cross-sectional view of an exemplary light guide having acladded core, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 29F is another cross-sectional view of an exemplary light guidehaving a cladded core, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 30A is a perspective view of an exemplary multicore light guide,according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 30B is a cross-sectional view of the exemplary multicore lightguide of FIG. 30A, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 30C is a perspective view of an exemplary flexible light guide,according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 31A is a side view of an exemplary multicore light guide, accordingto at least one embodiment.

FIG. 31B is a front view of an exemplary configuration of the multicorelight guide of FIG. 31A, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 31C is a front view of an exemplary configuration of the multicorelight guide of FIG. 31A, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 31D is a front view of an exemplary configuration of the multicorelight guide of FIG. 31A, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 32A is a cross-sectional view of an exemplary hollow light guidehaving a circular cross-sectional area, according to at least oneembodiment.

FIG. 32B is a cross-sectional view of an exemplary hollow light guidehaving a rectangular cross-sectional area, according to at least oneembodiment.

FIG. 32C is a cross-sectional view of an exemplary hollow light guidehaving an elliptical cross-sectional area, according to at least oneembodiment.

FIG. 32D is a cross-sectional view of an exemplary hollow light guidehaving a hexagonal cross-sectional area, according to at least oneembodiment.

FIG. 33 is a perspective view of an exemplary hollow light guide,according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 34 is a perspective view of another exemplary hollow light guide,according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 35 is a top view of an exemplary u-shaped light guide having aninner reflective surface, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 36A is a cross-sectional view of an exemplary light guide having acovering cap, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 36B is a cross-sectional view of an exemplary light guide having abutt dome cap, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 36C is a cross-sectional view of an exemplary light guide having abutt flat cap, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 36D is a cross-sectional view of an exemplary light guide having aconical shield, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 36E is a cross-sectional view of an exemplary light guide having anangled conical shield, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 36F is a cross-sectional view of an exemplary light guide having aone-sided shield, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 36G is a cross-sectional view of an exemplary light guide having aperforated shield, according to at least one embodiment.

FIG. 37 is a block diagram of an exemplary switching mechanism,according to some embodiments.

FIG. 38 is another block diagram of the exemplary switching mechanism ofFIG. 37, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 39 is a block diagram of an exemplary system for controlling and/ormanaging an illumination device.

FIG. 40 is a flow diagram of an exemplary method for performingphototherapy operations based on measurements of living tissue, inaccordance with some embodiments.

FIG. 41 is another block diagram of the exemplary illumination device ofFIG. 1 including a light-blocking light guide, according to someembodiments.

FIG. 42 is another block diagram of the exemplary illumination device ofFIG. 1 including a light-blocking light guide, according to someembodiments.

FIG. 43 is a side view of an exemplary handheld configuration of theexemplary illumination device of FIG. 1, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 44 is a front view of the exemplary handheld configuration of FIG.43, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 45 is a perspective view of the exemplary handheld configuration ofFIG. 43, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 46 is an exploded view of the exemplary handheld configuration ofFIG. 43, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 47 is a cross-sectional view of the exemplary handheldconfiguration of FIG. 43, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 48A is a perspective view of the exemplary mouthpiece of FIG. 43,according to some embodiments.

FIG. 48B is a rear view of the exemplary mouthpiece of FIG. 43,according to some embodiments.

FIG. 48C is a side view of the exemplary mouthpiece of FIG. 43,according to some embodiments.

FIG. 48D is a front view of the exemplary mouthpiece of FIG. 43,according to some embodiments.

FIG. 49A is a perspective view of the exemplary light guide of FIG. 43,according to some embodiments.

FIG. 49B is a rear view of the exemplary light guide of FIG. 43,according to some embodiments.

FIG. 49C is a side view of the exemplary light guide of FIG. 43,according to some embodiments.

FIG. 49D is a front view of the exemplary light guide of FIG. 43,according to some embodiments.

FIG. 50A is a perspective view of an exemplary removable assemblyincluding the exemplary mouthpiece and light guide of FIG. 43, accordingto some embodiments.

FIG. 50B is a rear view of the exemplary removable assembly of FIG. 50A,according to some embodiments.

FIG. 50C is a side view of the exemplary removable assembly of FIG. 50A,according to some embodiments.

FIG. 50D is a front view of the exemplary removable assembly of FIG.50A, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 51A is a side view of an exemplary handheld configuration of theexemplary illumination device of FIG. 43 without the removable assemblyof FIGS. 50A-50D, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 51B is a front view of the exemplary handheld configuration of FIG.43 without the removable assembly of FIGS. 50A-50D, according to someembodiments.

FIG. 51C is a perspective view of the exemplary handheld configurationof FIG. 43 without the removable assembly of FIGS. 50A-50D, according tosome embodiments.

FIG. 52 is a side view of another exemplary configuration of theexemplary illumination device of FIG. 1, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 53 is a side view of another exemplary configuration of theexemplary illumination device of FIG. 1, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 54A is a front perspective view of an exemplary handheldconfiguration of an illumination device for delivering light to livingtissue within or near a user's oral cavity, including the oropharynx.

FIG. 54B is a back perspective view of the illumination device of FIG.54A.

FIG. 54C is a front view of the illumination device of FIG. 54A.

FIG. 54D is a side view of the illumination device of FIG. 54A.

FIG. 54E is a top view of the of the illumination device of FIG. 54A.

FIG. 55 is an illustration of an oral cavity.

FIG. 56A is a perspective view of an exemplary cheek retractor accordingto certain embodiments.

FIG. 56B is a perspective view of a cheek retractor that includes amaterial, such as a filter, that is configured to block certainwavelengths of light during a phototherapy treatment.

FIG. 57 is a perspective view of a device for securing a light source toa user's nostrils.

FIG. 58 is an illustration of nitric oxide inactivation of active spike(S) proteins used by coronaviruses to facilitate endocytosis into humancells.

FIG. 59A is a chart illustrating measured spectral flux relative towavelength for different exemplary LED arrays.

FIG. 59B illustrates a perspective view of a testing set-up forproviding light from one or more LED arrays to a biological testarticle.

FIG. 60A is a chart illustrating a percent viability for a peakwavelength of 385 nm for a range of doses.

FIG. 60B is a chart illustrating a percent viability for a peakwavelength of 405 nm for the same doses of FIG. 60A.

FIG. 60C is a chart illustrating a percent viability for a peakwavelength of 425 nm for the same doses of FIG. 60A.

FIG. 61A is a chart illustrating percent viability for Vero E6 cells forantiviral assays performed on ninety-six well plates at various cellseeding densities.

FIG. 61B is a chart illustrating percent viability for Vero E6 cells forantiviral assays performed on forty-eight well plates at various cellseeding densities.

FIG. 61C is a chart illustrating percent viability for Vero E6 cells forantiviral assays performed on twenty-four well plates at various cellseeding densities.

FIG. 62A is a chart illustrating tissue culture infectious dose (TCID₅₀)per milliliter (ml) for the 425 nm light at the various dose ranges forVero E6 cells infected with a MOI of 0.001 SARS-CoV-2 isolateUSA-WA1/2020 for 1 hour.

FIG. 62B is a chart illustrating percent reduction in SARS-CoV-2replication versus percent cell cytotoxicity for the doses of light asillustrated in FIG. 62A.

FIG. 63A is a chart illustrating TCID₅₀/ml for 425 nm light at variousdose ranges for Vero E6 cells infected with a MOI of 0.01 SARS-CoV-2isolate USA-WA1/2020 for 1 hour.

FIG. 63B is a chart illustrating percent reduction in SARS-CoV-2replication versus percent cell cytotoxicity for the doses of light asillustrated in FIG. 63A.

FIG. 63C is a table showing an evaluation of SARS-CoV-2 RNA with reversetranscription polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR) for samples collectedfor the TCID₅₀ assays of FIGS. 63A-63B.

FIG. 64A is a chart illustrating TCID₅₀/ml for 425 nm light at variousdose ranges for Vero 76 cells infected with a MOI of 0.01 SARS-CoV-2.

FIG. 64B is a chart illustrating percent reduction in SARS-CoV-2replication versus percent cell cytotoxicity for the doses of light asillustrated in FIG. 64A.

FIG. 65 is a chart illustrating TCID₅₀/ml versus various doses of 625 nmred light for Vero E6 cells infected with a MOI of 0.01.

FIG. 66A is a chart illustrating a virus assay by TCID₅₀ on Vero E6cells for SARS-CoV-2 from a first laboratory.

FIG. 66B is a chart illustrating a virus assay by TCID₅₀ on Vero E6cells for SARS-CoV-2 from a first laboratory.

FIG. 67A is a chart indicating that Vero E6 cells do not show decreasedviability under 530 nm light at doses ranging from 0-180 J/cm².

FIG. 67B is a chart indicating that Vero E6 cells do not show decreasedviability under 625 nm light at doses ranging from 0-240 J/cm².

FIG. 68A is a chart showing raw luminescence values (RLU) for differentseedings of Vero E6 cell densities and various doses of light (J/cm²).

FIG. 68B is a chart showing percent viability for the different seedingsof Vero E6 cell densities and various doses of light of FIG. 68A.

FIG. 68C is a chart comparing RLU versus total cell number to show thatCTG is an effective reagent for measuring cell densities of above 10⁶Vero E6 cells.

FIG. 69A is a chart of TCID₅₀/ml versus dose at 24 hours and 48 hourspost infection for Calu-3 cells infected with SARS-CoV-2.

FIG. 69B is a chart showing the percent reduction in SARS-Cov-2 comparedwith percent cytotoxicity, for the Calu-3 cells of FIG. 69A.

FIG. 70A is a chart illustrating percent reduction in SARS-CoV-2replication versus percent cell cytotoxicity for Vero E6 cells infectedwith a MOI of 0.01 after various doses of light at 425 nm.

FIG. 70B is a chart illustrating percent reduction in SARS-CoV-2replication versus percent cell cytotoxicity for Vero E6 cells infectedwith a MOI of 0.001 after various doses of light at 425 nm.

FIG. 70C is a chart representing percent viability at various doses forprimary human tracheal/bronchial tissue from a single donor aftervarious doses of light at 425 nm.

FIG. 71A is a chart illustrating percent reduction in SARS-CoV-2replication versus percent cell cytotoxicity for Vero E6 cells infectedwith a MOI of 0.01 after various doses of light at 450 nm.

FIG. 71B is a chart illustrating percent reduction in SARS-CoV-2replication versus percent cell cytotoxicity for Vero E6 cells infectedwith a MOI of 0.001 after various doses of light at 450 nm.

FIG. 71C is a chart representing percent viability at various doses forprimary human tracheal/bronchial tissue from a single donor aftervarious doses of light at 450 nm.

FIG. 72 is a table summarizing the results illustrated in FIGS. 70A-70Cand 71A-71C.

FIG. 73A is a chart showing the titer of WT influenza A virus based onremaining viral loads for different initial viral doses after treatmentwith different doses of 425 nm light.

FIG. 73B is a chart showing the titer of Tamiflu-resistant influenza Avirus based on remaining viral load for a single initial viral doseafter treatment of different doses of 425 nm light.

FIG. 74A is a chart showing the TCID₅₀/ml versus energy dose forWT-influenza A treated with light at 425 nm at various doses with a MOIfor the WT-influenza A of 0.01.

FIG. 74B is a chart showing the percent reduction in viral loads ofWT-influenza A and percent cytotoxicity against the treated cells wheninfluenza A-infected Madin-Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cells were exposedto 425 nm light at various doses and a MOI for the WT-influenza A wasprovided at 0.01.

FIG. 74C illustrates the TCID₅₀ of cells infected with WT-influenza Aand treated with 425 nm light at various doses with a MOI for theWT-influenza A of 0.1.

FIG. 74D illustrates the percent reduction in viral loads ofWT-influenza A and percent cytotoxicity against the treated cells wheninfluenza A-infected Madin-Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cells were exposedto 425 nm light at various doses and a MOI for the WT-influenza A wasprovided at 0.1.

FIG. 75A is a chart showing the effectiveness of light at 405, 425, 450,and 470 nm and administered with a dose of 58.5 J/cm², in terms of hourspost-exposure, at killing P. aeruginosa.

FIG. 75B is a chart showing the effectiveness of light at 405, 425, 450,and 470 nm, and administered with a dose of 58.5 J/cm², in terms ofhours post-exposure, at killing S. aeurus.

FIG. 76A is a chart showing the effectiveness of light at 425 nm andadministered with doses ranging from 1 to 1000 J/cm² at killing P.aeruginosa.

FIG. 76B is a chart showing the effectiveness of light at 425 nm andadministered with doses ranging from 1 to 1000 J/cm² at killing S.aureus.

FIG. 77A is a chart showing the effectiveness of light at 405 nm andadministered with doses ranging from 1 to 1000 J/cm² at killing P.aeruginosa.

FIG. 77B is a chart showing the effectiveness of light at 405 nm andadministered with doses ranging from 1 to 1000 J/cm² at killing S.aureus.

FIG. 78 is a chart showing the toxicity of 405 nm and 425 nm light inprimary human aortic endothelial cells (HAEC).

FIG. 79A is a chart showing the bacterial log₁₀ reduction and the % lossof viability of infected AIR-100 tissues following exposure of thetissue to doses of light ranging from 4 to 512 J/cm² at 405 nm.

FIG. 79B is a chart showing the bacterial log₁₀ reduction and the % lossof viability of infected AIR-100 tissues following exposure of thetissue to doses of light ranging from 4 to 512 J/cm² at 425 nm.

FIG. 79C is a chart showing the bacterial log₁₀ reduction and the % lossof viability of infected AIR-100 tissues with gram negative bacteria(e.g., P. aeruginosa) following exposure of the tissue to doses of lightranging from 4 to 512 J/cm² at 405 nm.

FIG. 79D is a chart showing the bacterial log₁₀ reduction and the % lossof viability of infected AIR-100 tissues with gram negative bacteria(e.g., P. aeruginosa) following exposure of the tissue to doses of lightranging from 4 to 512 J/cm² at 425 nm.

FIG. 79E is a chart showing the bacterial log₁₀ reduction and the % lossof viability of infected AIR-100 tissues with gram positive bacteria(e.g., S. aureus) following exposure of the tissue to doses of lightranging from 4 to 512 J/cm² at 405 nm.

FIG. 79F is a chart showing the bacterial log₁₀ reduction and the % lossof viability of infected AIR-100 tissues with gram positive bacteria(e.g., S. aureus) following exposure of the tissue to doses of lightranging from 4 to 512 J/cm² at 425 nm.

FIGS. 80A-80J are a series of charts showing the effect of light at 405nm and 425 nm, at differing dosage levels, in terms of bacterialsurvival vs. dose (J/cm²) for both P. aeruginosa and S. aureus bacteria.

FIG. 81 is a table summarizing the light therapeutic index (LTI)calculations and corresponding bactericidal doses for the bacterialexperiments illustrated in FIGS. 79A-80.

FIG. 82 is a chart showing the effect of 425 nm light at various dosesat killing P. aeuriginosa over a period of time from 0 hours, 2 hours, 4hours, and 22.5 hours.

FIG. 83 is a chart showing that whether all of the light (J/cm²) isadministered in one dose or in a series of smaller doses, theantimicrobial effect (average CFU/ml) vs. dose (J/cm²×number oftreatments) is largely the same, at 8 hours and 48 hourspost-administration.

FIG. 84A is a chart showing the treatment of a variety of drug-resistantbacteria (Average CFU/ml) vs. dose (J/cm²) at 24 hours post-exposure.

FIG. 84B is a table summarizing the tested bacteria species and strains.

FIG. 84C is a table that summarizes the efficacy of twice daily dosingof 425 nm light against difficult-to-treat clinical lung pathogens.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The embodiments set forth below represent the necessary information toenable those skilled in the art to practice the embodiments andillustrate the best mode of practicing the embodiments. Upon reading thefollowing description in light of the accompanying drawing figures,those skilled in the art will understand the concepts of the disclosureand will recognize applications of these concepts not particularlyaddressed herein. It should be understood that these concepts andapplications fall within the scope of the disclosure and theaccompanying claims.

It should be understood that, although the terms first, second, etc. maybe used herein to describe various elements, these elements should notbe limited by these terms. These terms are only used to distinguish oneelement from another. For example, a first element could be termed asecond element, and, similarly, a second element could be termed a firstelement, without departing from the scope of the present disclosure. Asused herein, the term “and/or” includes any and all combinations of oneor more of the associated listed items.

It should be understood that when an element such as a layer, region, orsubstrate is referred to as being “on” or extending “onto” anotherelement, it can be directly on or extend directly onto the other elementor intervening elements may also be present. In contrast, when anelement is referred to as being “directly on” or extending “directlyonto” another element, there are no intervening elements present.Likewise, it will be understood that when an element such as a layer,region, or substrate is referred to as being “over” or extending “over”another element, it can be directly over or extend directly over theother element or intervening elements may also be present. In contrast,when an element is referred to as being “directly over” or extending“directly over” another element, there are no intervening elementspresent. It should also be understood that when an element is referredto as being “connected” or “coupled” to another element, it can bedirectly connected or coupled to the other element or interveningelements may be present. In contrast, when an element is referred to asbeing “directly connected” or “directly coupled” to another element,there are no intervening elements present.

It should be understood that, although the terms “upper,” “lower,”“bottom,” “intermediate,” “middle,” “top,” and the like may be usedherein to describe various elements, these elements should not belimited by these terms. These terms are only used to distinguish oneelement from another. For example, a first element could be termed an“upper” element and, similarly, a second element could be termed an“upper” element depending on the relative orientations of theseelements, without departing from the scope of the present disclosure.

The terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particularembodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of the disclosure.As used herein, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” are intended toinclude the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicatesotherwise. It will be further understood that the terms “comprises,”“comprising,” “includes,” and/or “including” when used herein specifythe presence of stated features, integers, steps, operations, elements,and/or components, but do not preclude the presence or addition of oneor more other features, integers, steps, operations, elements,components, and/or groups thereof.

Unless otherwise defined, all terms (including technical and scientificterms) used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by oneof ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure belongs. It willbe further understood that terms used herein should be interpreted ashaving meanings that are consistent with their meanings in the contextof this specification and the relevant art and will not be interpretedin an idealized or overly formal sense unless expressly so definedherein.

Embodiments are described herein with reference to schematicillustrations of embodiments of the disclosure. As such, the actualdimensions of the layers and elements can be different, and variationsfrom the shapes of the illustrations as a result, for example, ofmanufacturing techniques and/or tolerances, are expected. For example, aregion illustrated or described as square or rectangular can haverounded or curved features, and regions shown as straight lines may havesome irregularity. Thus, the regions illustrated in the figures areschematic and their shapes are not intended to illustrate the preciseshape of a region of a device and are not intended to limit the scope ofthe disclosure. Additionally, sizes of structures or regions may beexaggerated relative to other structures or regions for illustrativepurposes and, thus, are provided to illustrate the general structures ofthe present subject matter and may or may not be drawn to scale. Commonelements between figures may be shown herein with common element numbersand may not be subsequently re-described.

Aspects of the present disclosure relate to devices and methods forimpinging light on a mammalian tissue, for example within a body and/ora body cavity of a patient, where the light may include at least onecharacteristic that exerts or induces at least one biological effectwithin or on the tissue. Biological effects may include at least one ofinactivating and inhibiting growth of one or more combinations ofmicroorganisms and pathogens, including but not limited to viruses,bacteria, fungi, and other microbes, among others. Biological effectsmay also include one or more of upregulating a local immune response,stimulating enzymatic generation of nitric oxide to increase endogenousstores of nitric oxide, releasing nitric oxide from endogenous stores ofnitric oxide, and inducing an anti-inflammatory effect. Wavelengths oflight may be selected based on at least one intended biological effectfor one or more of the targeted tissue and the targeted microorganismsor pathogens. In certain aspects, wavelengths of light may includevisible light in any number of wavelength ranges based on the intendedbiological effect. Further aspects involve light impingement on tissuefor multiple microorganisms and/or multiple pathogenic biologicaleffects, either with light of a single peak wavelength or a combinationof light with more than one peak wavelength. Devices and methods forlight treatments are disclosed that provide light doses for inducingbiological effects on various targeted pathogens and targeted tissueswith increased efficacy and reduced cytotoxicity. Light doses mayinclude various combinations of irradiances, wavelengths, and exposuretimes, and such light doses may be administered continuously ordiscontinuously with a number of pulsed exposures.

Microorganisms, including disease-causing pathogens, typically invadetissues of the human body via two primary routes: mucosal surfaceswithin body cavities, such as the mucous membranes or mucosae of therespiratory tract, and epithelial surfaces outside of the body. Thereare a number of respiratory infections with disease-causing agents,including viruses and bacteria. Examples include Orthomyxoviridae (e.g.,influenza), colds, coronaviridae (e.g., coronavirus), and picornavirusinfections, tuberculosis, pneumonia, and bronchitis. Most infectionsbegin when a subject is exposed to pathogen particles, which enter thebody through the mouth, nose, and ears. For viral infections, threerequirements typically must be satisfied to ensure successful infectionin an individual host. Namely, a sufficient amount of the virus must beavailable to initiate infection, cells at the site of infection must beaccessible, susceptible, and permissive for the virus, and local hostanti-viral defense systems must be absent or initially ineffective.

Conventional treatments for respiratory infections typically involvesystemic administration of antimicrobials, which can, unfortunately,lead to drug resistance and gastro-intestinal distress. Devices andmethods for treating, preventing, or reducing the biological activity ofpathogens while they are in the mouth, nose, and/or ears, and beforethey travel to the lungs or elsewhere in the body, in contrast, would beparticularly beneficial. In particular, such devices and methods couldprevent infection by reducing microbial load before pathogens enter thelungs, decreasing the ability for penetration into cells at the site ofinfection, and amplifying host defense systems, all of which mayminimize or avoid the need for traditional antimicrobial medicines.

The present disclosure is generally directed to illumination devices,apparatus, and methods for impinging light onto living tissue in orderto induce one or more therapeutic biological effects. In variousaspects, induced biological effects may include least one ofinactivating microorganisms that are in a cell-free environment,inhibiting replication of microorganisms that are in a cell-associatedenvironment, upregulating a local immune response, stimulating enzymaticgeneration of nitric oxide to increase endogenous stores of nitricoxide, releasing nitric oxide from endogenous stores of nitric oxide,and inducing an anti-inflammatory effect. In certain aspects, the lightmay be referred to as nitric-oxide modulating light to increaseconcentrations of unbound nitric oxide within living tissue. As will beexplained in greater detail below, embodiments of the present disclosuremay administer light at one or more wavelengths as a Pre-ExposureProphylaxis (PrEP) or a Post-Exposure Prophylaxis (PEP) in order to (1)eliminate pathogens in or on tissue of the ears, nose, mouth, throat, orother body cavities and/or (2) amplify host defense systems. Embodimentsof the present disclosure may be used to prevent and/or treatrespiratory infections and other infectious diseases. For example, inone embodiment, a hand-held illumination device may administer light atone or more wavelengths as a prophylactic measure to reduce viralinfectivity and incidence of COVID-19 in individuals who have beeninfected or believe they may have been exposed to SARS-CoV-2 virus. Incertain aspects, illumination devices of the present disclosure may beprovided or referred to as phototherapeutic and/or phototherapy devices.

The term “phototherapy” relates to the therapeutic use of light. As usedherein, phototherapy is used to treat or prevent microbial infections,including viral infections of the body including mucosal epithelialtissues in the vaginal cavity, anal canal, oral cavity, the auditorycanal, the upper respiratory tract and esophagus.

The mechanisms by which the wavelengths of light are effective can vary,depending on the wavelength that is administered. Biological effects,including antimicrobial effects, can be provided over a wide range ofwavelengths, including UV ranges, visible light ranges, and infraredranges. The effects vary depending on the mechanism by which the lightis antimicrobial, and the wavelengths that bring about these mechanisms.

An illumination device for the treatment of pathogen infected tissuesand/or for inducing one or more biological effects may take any formsuitable for delivering light to the infected tissue. The device willcontain a light source capable of emitting a suitable light profile thatcan provide one or more direct or indirect biological effects. A lightprofile can be represented with a graph of emission intensity versuswavelength of light for any particular light source. Disclosed hereinare light sources with light profiles in the visible spectrum, forexample with light emissions with peak wavelengths primarily in a rangefrom 400 nm to 700 nm. Depending on the target application, lightprofiles may also include infrared or near-infrared peak wavelengths ator above 700 nm, or ultraviolet peak wavelengths at or below 400 nm. Incertain embodiments, light emissions may have a single peak wavelengthin a range from 200 nm to 900 nm, or in a range from 400 nm to 490 nm,or in a range from 400 nm to 435 nm, or in a range from 400 nm to 420nm, or in a range from 410 nm to 440 nm, or in a range from 420 nm to440 nm, or in a range from 450 nm to 490 nm, or in a range from 500 nmto 900 nm, or in a range from 490 nm to 570 nm, or in a range from 510nm to 550 nm, or in a range from 520 nm to 540 nm, or in a range from525 nm to 535 nm, or in a range from 528 nm to 532 nm, or in a rangefrom 320 nm to 400 nm, or in a range from 350 nm to 395 nm, or in arange from 280 nm to 320 nm, or in a range from 320 nm to 350 nm, or ina range from 200 nm to 280 nm, or in a range from 260 nm to 270 nm, orin a range from 240 nm to 250 nm, or in a range from 200 nm to 225 nm.In further embodiments, light emissions may include multiple peakwavelengths selected from any of the above listed ranges, depending onthe target application and desired biological effects. Depending on thetarget application, full width half maximum (FWHM) values for any of theabove-described peak wavelength ranges may be less than or equal to 100nm, or less than or equal to 90 nm, or less than or equal to 40 nm, orless than or equal to 20 nm. In certain aspects, lower FWHM values aretypically associated with single emission color LEDs in any of theabove-described wavelength bands. Larger FWHM values (e.g., from 40 nmto 100 nm) may be associated with phosphor-converted LEDs where spectralbandwidths are a combination of LED emissions and phosphor-convertedemissions. Exemplary phosphor-converted LEDs that may be applicable tothe present disclosure are phosphor-converted amber LEDs having peakwavelengths in a range from 585 nm to 600 nm and FWHM values in a rangefrom 70 nm to 100 nm, and phosphor-converted mint and/or lime LEDshaving peak wavelengths in a range from 520 nm to 560 nm. Additionalembodiments of the present disclosure may also be applicable to broadspectrum white LEDs that may include an LED with a peak wavelength in arange from 400 nm to 470 nm, and one or more phosphors to provide thebroad emission spectrum. In such embodiments, a broad spectrum LED mayprovide certain wavelengths that induce one or more biological effectswhile also providing broad spectrum emissions to the target area forillumination. In this regard, light impingement on tissue for singleand/or multiple microorganisms and/or multiple pathogenic biologicaleffects may be provided with light of a single peak wavelength or acombination of light with more than one peak wavelength.

Doses of light to induce one or more biological effects may beadministered with one or more light characteristics, including peakwavelengths, radiant flux, and irradiance to target tissues. Irradiancesto target tissues may be provided in a range from 0.1 milliwatts persquare centimeter (mW/cm²) to 200 mW/cm², or in a range from 5 mW/cm² to200 mW/cm², or in a range from 5 mW/cm² to 100 mW/cm², or in a rangefrom 5 mW/cm² to 60 mW/cm², or in a range from 60 mW/cm² to 100 mW/cm²,or in a range from 100 mW/cm² to 200 mW/cm². Such irradiance ranges maybe administered in one or more of continuous wave and pulsedconfigurations, including LED-based photonic devices that are configuredwith suitable power (radiant flux) to irradiate a target tissue with anyof the above-described ranges. A light source for providing suchirradiance ranges may be configured to provide radiant flux values fromthe light source of at least 5 mW, or at least 10 mW, or at least 15 mW,or at least 20 mW, or at least 30 mW, or at least 40 mW, or at least 50mW, or at least 100 mW, or at least 200 mW, or in a range of from 5 mWto 200 mW, or in a range of from 5 mW to 100 mW, or in a range of from 5mW to 60 mW, or in a range of from 5 mW to 30 mW, or in a range of from5 mW to 20 mW, or in a range of from 5 mW to 10 mW, or in a range offrom 10 mW to 60 mW, or in a range of from 20 mW to 60 mW, or in a rangeof from 30 mW to 60 mW, or in a range of from 40 mW to 60 mW, or in arange of from 60 mW to 100 mW, or in a range of from 100 mW to 200 mW,or in a range of from 200 mW to 500 mW, or in another range specifiedherein. Depending on the configuration of one or more of the lightsource, the corresponding illumination device, and the distance awayfrom a target tissue, the radiant flux value for the light source may behigher than the irradiance value at the tissue.

While certain peak wavelengths for certain target tissue types may beadministered with irradiances up to 1 W/cm² without causing significanttissue damage, safety considerations for other peak wavelengths andcorresponding tissue types may require lower irradiances, particularlyin continuous wave applications. In certain embodiments, pulsedirradiances of light may be administered, thereby allowing safeapplication of significantly higher irradiances. Pulsed irradiances maybe characterized as average irradiances that fall within safe ranges,thereby providing no or minimal damage to the applied tissue. In certainembodiments, irradiances in a range from 0.1 W/cm² to 10 W/cm² may besafely pulsed to target tissue.

Administered doses of light, or light doses, may be referred to astherapeutic doses of light in certain aspects. Doses of light mayinclude various suitable combinations of the peak wavelength, theirradiance to the target tissue, and the exposure time period.Particular doses of light are disclosed that are tailored to providesafe and effective light for inducing one or more biological effects forvarious types of pathogens and corresponding tissue types. In certainaspects, the dose of light may be administered within a single timeperiod in a continuous or a pulsed manner. In further aspects, a dose oflight may be repeatably administered over a number of times to provide acumulative or total dose over a cumulative time period. By way ofexample, a single dose of light as disclosed herein may be provided overa single time period, such as in a range from 10 microseconds to no morethan an hour, or in a range from 10 seconds to no more than an hour,while the single dose may be repeated at least twice to provide acumulative dose over a cumulative time period, such as a 24-hour timeperiod. In certain embodiments, doses of light are described that may beprovided in a range from 0.5 joules per square centimeter (J/cm²) to 100J/cm², or in a range from 0.5 J/cm² to 50 J/cm², or in a range from 2J/cm² to 80 J/cm², or in a range from 5 J/cm² to 50 J/cm², whilecorresponding cumulative doses may be provided in a range from 1 J/cm²to 1000 J/cm², or in a range from 1 J/cm² to 500 J/cm², or in a rangefrom 1 J/cm² to 200 J/cm², or in a range from 1 J/cm² to 100 J/cm², orin a range from 4 J/cm² to 160 J/cm², or in a range from 10 J/cm² to 100J/cm², among other discloses ranges. In a specific example, a singledose may be administered in a range from 10 J/cm² to 20 J/cm², and thesingle dose may be repeated twice a day for four consecutive days toprovide a cumulative dose in a range from 80 J/cm² to 160 J/cm². Inanother specific example, a single dose may be administered at about 30J/cm², and the single dose may be repeated twice a day for sevenconsecutive days to provide a cumulative dose of 420 J/cm².

In still further aspects, light for inducing one or more biologicaleffects may include administering different doses of light to a targettissue to induce one or more biological effects for different targetpathogens. As disclosed herein, a biological effect may include alteringa concentration of one or more pathogens within the body and alteringgrowth of the one or more pathogens within the body. The biologicaleffect may include at least one of inactivating the first pathogen in acell-free environment, inhibiting replication of the first pathogen in acell-associated environment, upregulating a local immune response in themammalian tissue, stimulating enzymatic generation of nitric oxide toincrease endogenous stores of nitric oxide in the mammalian tissue,releasing nitric oxide from endogenous stores of nitric oxide in themammalian tissue, and inducing an anti-inflammatory effect in themammalian tissue. As further disclosed herein, a pathogen may include avirus, a bacteria, and a fungus, or other any other types ofmicroorganisms that can cause infections. Notably, light doses asdisclosed herein may provide non-systemic and durable effects totargeted tissues. Light can be applied locally and without off-targettissue effects or overall systemic effects associated with conventionaldrug therapies which can spread throughout the body. In this regard,phototherapy may induce a biological effect and/or response in a targettissue without triggering the same or other biological responses inother parts of the body. Phototherapy as described herein may beadministered with safe and effective doses that are durable. Forexample, a dose may be applied for minutes at a time, one to a few timesa day, and the beneficial effect of the phototherapy may continue inbetween treatments.

Light sources may include one or more of LEDs, OLEDs, lasers and otherlamps according to aspects of the present disclosure. Lasers may be usedfor irradiation in combination with optical fibers or other deliverymechanisms. A disadvantage of using a laser is that it may requiresophisticated equipment operated by highly skilled professionals toensure proper laser radiation protection, thereby increasing costs andreducing accessibility. LEDs are solid state electronic devices capableof emitting light when electrically activated. LEDs may be configuredacross many different targeted emission spectrum bands with highefficiency and relatively low costs. In this regard, LEDs arecomparatively simpler devices that operate over much wider ranges ofcurrent and temperature, thereby providing an effective alternative toexpensive laser systems. Accordingly, LEDs may be used as light sourcesin photonic devices for phototherapy applications. Light from an LED isadministered using a device capable of delivering the requisite power toa targeted treatment area or tissue. High power LED based devices can beemployed to fulfill various spectral and power needs for a variety ofdifferent medical applications. LED-based photonic devices describedherein may be configured with suitable power to provide irradiances ashigh as 100 mW/cm², or 200 mW/cm² in the desired wavelength range. AnLED array in this device can be incorporated into an irradiation head,hand piece and or as an external unit. When incorporated into a handpiece or irradiation head, risk of eye or other organs being exposed toharmful radiation may be avoided.

According to aspects of the present disclosure, exemplary target tissuesand cells light treatments may include one or more of epithelial tissue,mucosal tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, cervical tissue,dermal tissue, mucosal epithelial tissues in the vaginal cavity, analcanal, oral cavity, the auditory canal, the upper respiratory tract andesophagus, keratinocytes, fibroblasts, blood, sputum, saliva, cervicalfluid, and mucous. Light treatments may also be applied to and/or withinorgans, to external body surfaces, and within any mammalian body and/orbody cavity, for example the oral cavity, esophageal cavity, throat, andvaginal cavity, among others.

Features from any of the embodiments described herein may be used incombination with one another in accordance with the general principlesdescribed herein. These and other embodiments, features, and advantageswill be more fully understood upon reading the following detaileddescription in conjunction with the accompanying drawings and claims.

FIG. 1 is an illustration of an exemplary configuration 100 of anillumination device 102 for delivering light 130 to body tissue 104 toinduce at least one biological effect. As previously described, inducedbiological effects may include least one of inactivating microorganismsthat are in a cell-free environment, inhibiting replication ofmicroorganisms that are in a cell-associated environment, upregulating alocal immune response, stimulating enzymatic generation of nitric oxideto increase endogenous stores of nitric oxide, releasing nitric oxidefrom endogenous stores of nitric oxide, and inducing ananti-inflammatory effect. In certain aspects, the light 130 may beconfigured as nitric-oxide modulating light in order to increaseconcentrations of unbound nitric oxide within body tissue 104. As shownin FIG. 1, the illumination device 102 may include one or more lightemitter(s) 120 operable to emit the light 130 onto a treatment area 140of the body tissue 104. The light emitter(s) 120 may be positioned sothat one or more portions of the light 130 impinge the treatment area140 with an angle of incidence of 90 degrees with a tolerance of plus orminus 10 degrees, although other angles of incidence may also beemployed. The light emitter(s) 120 may also be configured to provide abeam uniformity of the light 130 of no more than about 20%, or no morethan about 15%, or no more than about 10% of a range over mean at thetreatment area 140. Such beam uniformity values may be determined basedon selection of optics and/or waveguides for the light emitter(s) 120.In certain embodiments, the light emitter(s) 120 may be capable ofproviding an irradiance to the treatment area 140 of up to about 45mW/cm² when positioned at a distance of about 96 mm from the treatmentarea 140, or up to about 60 mW/cm² when positioned at a distance ofabout 83 mm from the treatment area 140, or up to about 80 mW/cm² whenpositioned at a distance of about 70 mm from the treatment area 140. Theabove irradiance values are provided as an example. In practice theirradiance values may be configured in other ranges based on theapplication. The light emitter(s) 120 may include any light sourcecapable of emitting or stimulating one or more of the biologicaleffects. Examples of light emitter(s) 120 may include, withoutlimitation, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), organic light-emitting diodes(OLEDs), superluminescent diodes (SLDs), lasers, and/or any combinationsthereof. Where a light emitter is described as emitting light of awavelength or a range of wavelengths, and where light is referred to ashaving a wavelength (e.g., a wavelength of 415 nanometers (nm)), becausemost light emitters (particularly those other than laser diodes) mayemit light of different wavelengths within a range of wavelengths, itshould be understood that the wavelength value may refer to the dominantwavelength of the light, the peak wavelength of the light, the centroidwavelength of the light, and/or a wavelength that is within 3 nm of atleast 50 percent of an emission spectrum of the light. Unless otherwisespecified in the present disclosure, various embodiments are providedbelow with reference to peak wavelengths.

The illumination device 102 may further include (1) emitter-drivingcircuitry 110 operable to control output of light emitter(s) 120 and (2)one or more sensors (e.g., sensors 115 and 125) operable to sense ormeasure attributes of illumination device 102, light emitter(s) 120,nitric-oxide modulating light 130, treatment area 140, body tissue 104,and/or the environment within which illumination device 102 operates. Aswill be explained in greater detail below, emitter-driving circuitry 110may control the output of light-emitter(s) 120 based on informationcollected via sensors 115 and 125. Examples of sensors 115 and 125include, without limitation, temperature sensors, photo sensors, imagesensors, proximity sensors, blood pressure or other pressure sensors,chemical sensors, biosensors (e.g., heart rate sensors, body temperaturesensors, sensors that detect the presence or concentration of chemicalor biological species, or other conditions), accelerometers, moisturesensors, oximeters, such as pulse oximeters, current sensors, voltagesensors, and the like. In certain embodiments, the operation of methodsdisclosed herein may be responsive to one or more signals generated byone or more of sensors 115 and/or 125 or other elements.

FIG. 2 is an illustration of an exemplary configuration 200 ofillumination device 102 for delivering two types of light 230, 240 tobody tissue 104. The two types of light 230, 240 may be configured toinduce at least two biological effects, for example at least two ofinactivating microorganisms that are in a cell-free environment,inhibiting replication of microorganisms that are in a cell-associatedenvironment, upregulating a local immune response, stimulating enzymaticgeneration of nitric oxide to increase endogenous stores of nitricoxide, releasing nitric oxide from endogenous stores of nitric oxide,and inducing an anti-inflammatory effect. The two types of light 230,240 may also be configured to provide a similar biological effect, suchas two different types of nitric-oxide modulating light in order toincrease concentrations of unbound nitric oxide within the body tissue104. Additionally, the two types of light 230, 240 may be configured toprovide the same or different biological effect for different types ofmicroorganisms and/or pathogens that may be present in the body tissue104.

In certain embodiments, light emitter(s) 120 may include one or morelight emitter(s) 210 operable to emit endogenous-store increasing light230 and one or more light emitter(s) 220 operable to emitendogenous-store releasing light 240. Light emitter(s) 210 and 220 mayinclude any light source capable of emitting suitable light. Examples oflight emitter(s) 210 and 220 may include, without limitation, LEDs,OLEDs, SLDs, lasers, and/or any combinations thereof.

FIG. 3 is a spectral diagram showing intensity versus wavelength for theexemplary light 130 of FIG. 1 that may be configured to induce any ofthe above-described biological effects, including nitric-oxidemodulating light. FIG. 4 is a spectral diagram showing intensity versuswavelength for the exemplary light 230, 240 of FIG. 2 that may berespectively be configured to induce any of the above-describedbiological effects, such as an endogenous-store increasing light 230 andan endogenous-store releasing light 240. By way of example, the light130 is illustrated as having a peak intensity 308 at a peak wavelength304, the light 230 is illustrated as having a peak intensity 414 at apeak wavelength 404, and the light 230 is illustrated as having a peakintensity 414 at a peak wavelength 410. In these examples, peakwavelength 304 may be any wavelength within a range from wavelength 302to wavelength 306, peak wavelength 404 may be any wavelength within arange from wavelength 402 to wavelength 406, and peak wavelength 410 maybe any wavelength within a range from wavelength 408 to wavelength 412.

The specific peak wavelengths illustrated in FIGS. 3 and 4 are providedby way of non-limiting examples. In practice the light 130 of FIG. 1 andthe light 230, 240 of FIGS. 3 and 4 may be provided in many differentpeak wavelength ranges depending on the target application, the one ormore target microorganisms and/or pathogens, and the target tissue type.Exemplary wavelength ranges include from 200 nm to 900 nm, or from 400nm to 900 nm, or from 400 nm to 700 nm, or from 400 nm to 450 nm, orfrom 400 nm to 435 nm, or from 400 nm to 420 nm, or from 420 nm to 440nm, or from 450 nm to 490 nm, or from 500 nm to 900 nm, or from 490 nmto 570 nm, or from 510 nm to 550, or from 520 nm to 540 nm, or from 525nm to 535 nm, or from 528 nm to 532 nm, or from 200 nm to 280 nm, orfrom 260 nm to 270 nm, or from 280 nm to 320 nm, or from 320 nm to 350nm, or from 320 nm to 400 nm, or from 350 nm to 395 nm, or from 600 nmto 900 nm, or from 600 nm to 700 nm, or from 620 nm to 670 nm, or from630 nm to 660 nm depending on the target application and the targettissue type. Specific exemplary wavelength ranges are provided below inthe context of specific target applications according to principles ofthe present disclosure.

As used herein, the term “light” generally refers to electromagneticradiation of any wavelength or any combination of wavelengths and/or toone or more photons. Accordingly, the term “light,” as used herein, canrefer to visible light or to non-visible light (in particular,ultraviolet light, or infrared light). The term “light,” as used herein,may refer to a single photon of a single wavelength, or it can refer toa plurality of photons that may be of the same wavelength, or one ormore photons of each of two or more wavelengths. The term “impinge,” asused herein in the context of light impinging on an object (e.g., in theexpression “at least one first solid state light-emitting deviceconfigured to impinge light having the first peak wavelength on skintissue”) may indicate that the light is incident on the object.

The term “peak wavelength” is generally used herein to refer to thewavelength that is of the greatest irradiance of the light emitted by alight emitter. The term “dominant wavelength” is generally used hereinto refer to the perceived color of a spectrum, i.e., the singlewavelength of light which produces a color sensation most similar to thecolor sensation perceived from viewing light emitted by the light source(i.e., it is roughly akin to “hue”), as opposed to “peak wavelength”,which commonly refers to the spectral line with the greatest power inthe spectral power distribution of the light source. Because the humaneye does not perceive all wavelengths equally (e.g., it perceives yellowand green light better than red and blue light), and because the lightemitted by many solid state light emitters (e.g., LEDs) is actually arange of wavelengths, the color perceived (i.e., the dominantwavelength) is not necessarily equal to (and often differs from) thewavelength with the highest power (peak wavelength). A trulymonochromatic light such as a laser may have the same dominant and peakwavelengths.

As used herein, the term “nitric-oxide modulating light” generallyrefers to light that, when impinged onto living tissue, increasesconcentrations of unbound nitric oxide within the living tissue. Theterm “nitric-oxide modulating light” may encompass endogenousnitric-oxide increasing and/or endogenous nitric-oxide releasing light.The term “nitric-oxide modulating light” may refer to specificwavelengths of light that stimulate natural production of nitric oxides(e.g., through a process similar to those illustrated in FIGS. 5A and5B) and/or instantaneous release of nitric oxide reserves found withinliving tissue (e.g., through a process similar to that illustrated inFIGS. 6A and 6B). The term “nitric-oxide modulating light” mayadditionally or alternatively refer to any light capable of stimulatingat least one of (1) enzymatic generation of unbound nitric oxide withinliving tissue (e.g., through a process similar to that illustrated inFIGS. 5A and 5B) or (2) release of nitric oxide from endogenous storesof bound nitric oxide within living tissue (e.g., through a processsimilar to that illustrated in FIGS. 6A and 6B).

FIGS. 5A and 5B illustrate a reaction sequence showing photoactivatedupregulation (e.g., with light 230) of inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase(iNOS) expression and subsequent production of unbound nitric oxidecatalyzed by iNOS, followed by binding of nitric oxide to CCO. Whennitric oxide is auto-oxidized into nitrosative intermediates (e.g.,endogenous stores of nitric oxide including nitrosoglutathione,nitrosoal-bumin, nitrosohemoglobin, nitrosothiols, nitrosamines, and/ormetal nitrosyl complexes), the nitric oxide may be bound covalently inthe body (in a “bound” state). FIG. 5C is a chart showing the enzymaticgeneration of nitric oxide (in keratinocytes), in terms of % cellsexpressing iNOS, when exposed to no light, blue light, red light at afirst wavelength, red light at a second wavelength, and to infraredlight, 24 hours after exposure of the keratinocytes to 10 minutes ofirradiation.

FIG. 6A is a chart showing the release of nitric oxide (μmoles/second)vs. time (minutes) from the photoacceptor GSNO, upon exposure to blue,green, and red wavelengths of light. FIG. 6B is an illustration showingthe attachment of nitric oxide to the photoacceptor CCO to form thecomplex CCO-NO, and the subsequent release of NO from this complex uponexposure to endogenous-store releasing light 240.

The term “endogenous-store increasing light,” as used herein, generallyencompasses light of a wavelength or a wavelength range thatphoto-initiates an increase of bound nitric oxide in endogenous storesand/or that stimulates enzymatic generation of unbound nitric oxide thatmay be naturally bound covalently in endogenous stores. Examples ofendogenous-store increasing light include, without limitation, bluelight, light having a peak wavelength in a range of about 410 nm toabout 440 nm, light having a peak wavelength in a range of about 400 nmto about 490 nm, light having a peak wavelength in a range of about 400nm to about 450 nm, light having a peak wavelength in a range of about400 nm to about 435 nm, light having a peak wavelength in a range ofabout 400 nm to about 420 nm, light having a peak wavelength in a rangeof about 420 nm to about 440 nm, light having a peak wavelength in arange of about 400 nm to about 500 nm, light having a peak wavelength ina range of about 400 nm to about 430 nm, light having a peak wavelengthequal to about 415 nm, light having a peak wavelength equal to about 405nm, and/or any combination thereof.

The term “endogenous-store releasing light,” as used herein, generallyencompasses light of a wavelength or a wavelength range thatphoto-initiates a release of unbound nitric oxide from endogenous storesof nitric oxide. Examples of endogenous-store releasing light include,without limitation, green light, light having a peak wavelength in arange of about 500 nm to about 540 nm, light having a peak wavelength ina range of about 500 nm to about 900 nm, light having a peak wavelengthin a range of about 490 nm to about 570 nm, light having a peakwavelength in a range of about 510 nm to about 550 nm, light having apeak wavelength in a range of about 520 nm to about 540 nm, light havinga peak wavelength in a range of about 525 nm to about 535 nm, lighthaving a peak wavelength in a range of about 528 nm to about 532 nm,light having a peak wavelength equal to about 530 nm, and/or anycombination thereof.

The term “endogenous nitric-oxide increasing and/or endogenousnitric-oxide releasing light,” as used herein, encompasses light of awavelength or a wavelength range that increases the rate of productionof endogenous nitric-oxide, light of a wavelength or a wavelength rangethat increases the rate of release of endogenous nitric-oxide, light ofa wavelength or a wavelength range that increases both the rate ofproduction of endogenous nitric-oxide and the rate of release ofendogenous nitric-oxide, and a combination of light from at least onefirst group of light emitters that emits light of a wavelength or awavelength range that increases the rate of production of endogenousnitric-oxide, and light from at least one second group of light emittersthat emits light of a wavelength or a wavelength range that increasesthe rate of release of endogenous nitric-oxide.

Returning to FIG. 2, in some embodiments, the light 240 may have a firstpeak wavelength and a first radiant flux to include one or more of thebiological effects, and the light 230 may have a second peak wavelengthand a second radiant flux to include one or more of the biologicaleffects.

In certain embodiments, the second peak wavelength may be greater thanthe first peak wavelength by at least 25 nm, at least 40 nm, at least 50nm, at least 60 nm, at least 75 nm, at least 85 nm, at least 100 nm, oranother threshold specified herein. Such peak wavelength differences maybe present for inducing any of the above-described biological effects,including embodiments where the light 230 is endogenous-store increasinglight and the light 240 is endogenous-store releasing light.

Exemplary embodiments are provided below in the context of nitric oxidemodulating light, including endogenous-store increasing lightendogenous-store releasing light. It is understood that any of thebelow-described embodiments may equally relate to any light and/orcombination of light that induces one or more of the biological effectspreviously described, including inactivating microorganisms that are ina cell-free environment, inhibiting replication of microorganisms thatare in a cell-associated environment, upregulating a local immuneresponse, stimulating enzymatic generation of nitric oxide to increaseendogenous stores of nitric oxide, releasing nitric oxide fromendogenous stores of nitric oxide, and inducing an anti-inflammatoryeffect in tissue. Different combinations of light and induced biologicaleffects may be tailored to different body tissues and different targetedmicroorganisms and/or pathogens.

In certain embodiments, each of endogenous-store increasing light 230and endogenous-store releasing light 240 (and/or the light 130) may havea radiant flux in a range of at least 5 mW, or at least 10 mW, or atleast 15 mW, or at least 20 mW, or at least 30 mW, or at least 40 mW, orat least 50 mW, or at least 100 mW, or at least 200 mW, or at least 500mW, or at least 2500 mW, or at least 5000 mW, or in a range of from 5 mWto 200 mW, or in a range of from 5 mW to 100 mW, or in a range of from 5mW to 60 mW, or in a range of from 5 mW to 30 mW, or in a range of from5 mW to 20 mW, or in a range of from 5 mW to 10 mW, or in a range offrom 10 mW to 60 mW, or in a range of from 20 mW to 60 mW, or in a rangeof from 30 mW to 60 mW, or in a range of from 40 mW to 60 mW, or in arange of from 60 mW to 100 mW, or in a range of from 100 mW to 200 mW,or in a range of from 200 mW to 500 mW, or in a range of from 5 mW to5000 mW, or in a range of from 5 mW to 2500 mW, or in another rangespecified herein. Higher fluxes, for example, between 0.1 W and 10 W, orbetween 10 W and 10 GW, including those where pulsed light is used, canbe used to increase penetration, and effect microbial decontamination,if need be, in another range specified herein.

Each of endogenous-store increasing light 230 and endogenous-storereleasing light 240 (and the light 130) may be administered withirradiances to target tissues in a range from 0.1 mW/cm² to 200 mW/cm²,or in a range from 5 mW/cm² to 200 mW/cm², or in a range from 5 mW/cm²to 100 mW/cm², or in a range from 5 mW/cm² to 60 mW/cm², or in a rangefrom 60 mW/cm² to 100 mW/cm², or in a range from 100 mW/cm² to 200mW/cm². Such irradiance ranges may be administered in one or more ofcontinuous wave and pulsed configurations, including LED-based photonicdevices that are configured with suitable power (radiant flux) toirradiate a target tissue with any of the above-described ranges.Depending on the configuration of one or more of the light source, thecorresponding illumination device, and the distance away from a targettissue, the radiant flux value for the light source may be higher thanthe irradiance value at the tissue. In certain embodiments, the radiantflux value may be configured with a value that is greater than theirradiance value to the tissue. For example, the radiant flux may be ina range from 5 to 20 times greater than the irradiance, or in a rangefrom 5 to 15 times greater than the irradiance, among other ranges anddepending on the embodiments.

In certain embodiments, endogenous-store increasing light 230 may have agreater radiant flux than endogenous-store releasing light 240. Incertain embodiments, endogenous-store releasing light 240 may have agreater radiant flux than endogenous-store increasing light 230.

In certain embodiments, one or both of endogenous-store increasing light230 and endogenous-store releasing light 240 may have a radiant fluxprofile that may be substantially constant during a treatment window. Incertain embodiments, at least one of endogenous-store increasing light230 and endogenous-store releasing light 240 may have a radiant fluxprofile that increases with time during a treatment window. In certainembodiments, at least one of endogenous-store increasing light 230 andendogenous-store releasing light 240 may have a radiant flux profilethat decreases with time during a treatment window. In certainembodiments, one of endogenous-store increasing light 230 orendogenous-store releasing light 240 may have a radiant flux profilethat decreases with time during a treatment window, while the other ofendogenous-store increasing light 230 or endogenous-store releasinglight 240 may have a radiant flux profile that increases with timeduring a treatment window.

In certain embodiments, endogenous-store releasing light 240 may beapplied to tissue during a first time window, endogenous-storeincreasing light 230 may be applied to the tissue during a second timewindow, and the second time window may overlap with the first timewindow. In other embodiments, endogenous-store releasing light 240 maybe applied to tissue during a first time window, endogenous-storeincreasing light 230 may be applied to the tissue during a second timewindow, and the second time may be non-overlapping or may be onlypartially overlapping with the first time window. In certainembodiments, the second time window may be initiated more than oneminute, more than 5 minutes, more than 10 minutes, more than 30 minutes,or more than one hour after conclusion of the first time window. Incertain embodiments, endogenous-store releasing light 240 may be appliedto tissue during a first time window, endogenous-store increasing light230 may be applied to the tissue during a second time window, and thefirst time window and the second time window may be substantially thesame. In other embodiments, the second time window may be longer thanthe first time window. Aspects of these embodiments where UVA/UVB/UVClight is administered in the same or different time windows, or to thesame or different tissue, are also contemplated.

In certain embodiments, one or both of endogenous-store increasing light230 and endogenous-store releasing light 240 may be provided by a steadystate source providing a radiant flux that may be substantially constantover a prolonged period without being pulsed.

In certain embodiments, one or both of endogenous-store increasing light230 and endogenous-store releasing light 240 may include more than onediscrete pulse (e.g., a plurality of pulses) of light. In certainembodiments, more than one discrete pulse of endogenous-store releasinglight 240 may be impinged on tissue during a first time window, and/ormore than one discrete pulse of endogenous-store increasing light 230may be impinged on tissue during a second time window. In certainembodiments, the first time window and the second time window may becoextensive, may be overlapping but not coextensive, or may benon-overlapping.

In certain embodiments, at least one of the radiant flux and the pulseduration of endogenous-store releasing light 240 may be reduced from amaximum value to a non-zero reduced value during a portion of a firsttime window. In certain embodiments, at least one of the radiant fluxand the pulse duration of endogenous-store releasing light 240 may beincreased from a non-zero value to a higher value during a portion of afirst time window. In certain embodiments, at least one of the radiantflux and the pulse duration of endogenous-store increasing light 230 maybe reduced from a maximum value to a non-zero reduced value during aportion of a second time window. In certain embodiments, at least one ofthe radiant flux and the pulse duration of endogenous-store increasinglight 230 may be increased from a non-zero value to a higher valueduring a portion of a second time window.

In certain embodiments, each of endogenous-store increasing light 230and endogenous-store releasing light 240 may consist of non-coherentlight. In certain embodiments, each of endogenous-store increasing light230 and endogenous-store releasing light 240 may consist of coherentlight. In certain embodiments, one of endogenous-store increasing light230 or endogenous-store releasing light 240 may consist of non-coherentlight, and the other of endogenous-store increasing light 230 orendogenous-store releasing light 240 may consist of coherent light.

In certain embodiments, endogenous-store releasing light 240 may beprovided by at least one first light emitting device andendogenous-store increasing light 230 may be provided by at least onesecond light emitting device. In certain embodiments, endogenous-storereleasing light 240 may be provided by a first array of light emittingdevices and endogenous-store increasing light 230 may be provided by asecond array of light emitting devices.

In certain embodiments, at least one of endogenous-store increasinglight 230 or endogenous-store releasing light 240 may be provided by atleast one solid state light emitting device. Examples of solid statelight emitting devices include (but are not limited to) light emittingdiodes, lasers, thin film electroluminescent devices, powderedelectroluminescent devices, field induced polymer electroluminescentdevices, and polymer light-emitting electrochemical cells. In certainembodiments, endogenous-store releasing light 240 may be provided by atleast one first solid state light emitting device and endogenous-storeincreasing light 230 may be provided by at least one second solid statelight emitting device. In certain embodiments, endogenous-storeincreasing light 230 and endogenous-store releasing light 240 may begenerated by different emitters contained in a single solid stateemitter package, where close spacing between adjacent emitters mayprovide integral color mixing. In certain embodiments, endogenous-storereleasing light 240 may be provided by a first array of solid statelight emitting devices and endogenous-store increasing light 230 may beprovided by a second array of solid state light emitting devices. Incertain embodiments, an array of solid state emitter packages eachincluding at least one first emitter and at least one second emitter maybe provided, where the array of solid state emitter packages embodies afirst array of solid state emitters arranged to generateendogenous-store releasing light 240 and embodies a second array ofsolid state emitters arranged to generate endogenous-store increasinglight 230. In certain embodiments, an array of solid state emitterpackages may embody packages further including third, fourth, and/orfifth solid state emitters, such that a single array of solid stateemitter packages may embody three, four, or five arrays of solid stateemitters, wherein each array may be arranged to generate emissions witha different peak wavelength.

In certain embodiments, at least one of endogenous-store increasinglight 230 or endogenous-store releasing light 240 may be provided by atleast one light emitting device devoid of a wavelength conversionmaterial. In other embodiments, at least one of endogenous-storeincreasing light 230 or endogenous-store releasing light 240 may beprovided by at least one light emitting device arranged to stimulate awavelength conversion material, such as a phosphor material, afluorescent dye material, a quantum dot material, and a fluorophorematerial.

In certain embodiments, endogenous-store increasing light 230 andendogenous-store releasing light 240 may consist of substantiallymonochromatic light. In certain embodiments, endogenous-store releasinglight 240 may include a first spectral output having a first full widthat half maximum value of less than 25 nm (or less than 20 nm, or lessthan 15 nm, or in a range of from 5 nm to 25 nm, or in a range of from10 nm to 25 nm, or in a range of from 15 nm to 25 nm), and/orendogenous-store increasing light 230 may include a second spectraloutput having a second full width at half maximum value of less than 25nm (or less than 20 nm, or less than 15 nm, or in a range of from 5 nmto 25 nm, or in a range of from 10 nm to 25 nm, or in a range of from 15nm to 25 nm). In certain embodiments, less than 5% of the first spectraloutput may be in a wavelength range of less than 400 nm, and less than1% of the second spectral output may be in a wavelength range of lessthan 400 nm.

In certain embodiments, endogenous-store releasing light 240 may beproduced by one or more first light emitters having a single first peakwavelength, and endogenous-store increasing light 230 may be produced byone or more second light emitters having a single second peakwavelength. In other embodiments, endogenous-store increasing light 230may be produced by at least two light emitters having different peakwavelengths (e.g., differing by at least 5 nm, at least 10 nm, at least15 nm, at least 20 nm, or at least 25 nm), and/or endogenous-storereleasing light 240 may be produced by at least two light emittershaving different peak wavelengths (e.g., differing by at least 5 nm, atleast 10 nm, at least 15 nm, at least 20 nm, or at least 25 nm).

Ultraviolet light (e.g., UV-A light having a peak wavelength in a rangeof from 350 nm to 395 nm, and UV-B light having a peak wavelength in arange of from 320 nm to 350 nm) may be effective as ES increasing light;however, overexposure to ultraviolet light may lead to detrimentalhealth effects including premature skin aging and potentially elevatedrisk for certain types of cancer. UVC light can also be particularlyeffective at treating microbial infections. While damage to the tissuebeing exposed to these wavelengths should be minimal during the courseof antimicrobial therapy, it may cause some detrimental effects onlong-term exposure. It may therefore be desirable to use shorter cyclesof UV light than non-UV light. In certain embodiments, UV light (e.g.,having peak wavelengths in a range of from 320 nm to 399 nm) may be usedas ES increasing light; however, in other embodiments, UV light may beavoided. The combination of light at these (UVA, UVB, and/or UVC)wavelengths with the anti-inflammatory light can minimize these effects.

In certain embodiments, endogenous-store increasing light 230 andendogenous-store releasing light 240 may be substantially free of UVlight. In certain embodiments, less than 5% of endogenous-storeincreasing light 230 may be in a wavelength range of less than 400 nm,and less than 1% of endogenous-store releasing light 240 output may bein a wavelength range of less than 400 nm. In certain embodiments,endogenous-store increasing light 230 includes a peak wavelength in arange of from 400 nm to 490 nm, or from 400 nm to 450 nm, or from 400 nmto 435 nm, or from 400 nm to 420 nm, or from 410 nm to 440 nm, or from420 nm to 440 nm.

In certain embodiments, endogenous-store increasing light 230 mayinclude a wavelength range and an irradiance that may alter thepresence, concentration, or growth of pathogens (e.g., bacteria,viruses, fungi, protists, and/or other microbes) in or on livingmammalian tissue receiving the light. UV light and near-UV light inparticular may affect microbial growth. Effects on microbial growth maydepend on the wavelength range and dose. In certain embodiments, ESincreasing or endogenous-store releasing light 240 may include near-UVlight having a peak wavelength in a range of from 400 nm to 420 nm toprovide a bacteriostatic effect (e.g., with pulsed light having anirradiance of <9 mW/cm²), provide a bactericidal effect (e.g., withsubstantially steady state light having an irradiance in a range of from9 mW/cm² to 17 mW/cm²), or provide an antimicrobial effect (e.g., withsubstantially steady state light having an irradiance in a range ofgreater than 17 mW/cm², such as in a range of from 18 mW/cm² to 60mW/cm²). In certain embodiments, the irradiance values and ranges mayextend higher, to about 60 to about 100 mW/cm² or to about 100 to about200 mW/cm².

With respect to certain tissues and certain wavelengths, irradiances upto 1 W/cm² may be applied without causing significant damage to thetissues. If the light is pulsed, the irradiance can be applied at asignificantly higher range, so long as the average irradiance fallswithin these ranges, and causes minimal damage to the tissue to which itis applied. The irradiance in a pulse setting may be as low as 0.1 W/cm²up to 10 W/cm², or even higher.

In certain embodiments, light in a near-UV range (e.g., from 400 nm to420 nm) may also affect microbial growth (whether in a bacteriostaticrange, bactericidal range, or an antimicrobial range) for uses such aswound healing, reduction of acne blemishes, or treatment of atopicdermatitis. Such function(s) may be in addition to the function ofendogenous-store increasing light 230 that increases endogenous storesof nitric oxide in living tissue.

A combination of equal parts of 410 nm light and 530 nm light may beequally as effective as 530 nm light alone. Such a combination may bebeneficial since a 410 nm blue LED may be significantly more efficientthan a 530 nm green LED, such that a combination of equal parts of 410nm LED emissions and 530 nm LED emissions may use 26% less electricpower than emissions of a 530 nm LED alone, when operated to provide thesame radiant flux.

Light at 660 nm may be significantly less effective than the 530 nmgreen light at releasing NO from Hb-NO. The release of NO from Hb-NOappears to be the same for 530 nm green light, 660 nm red light, and acombination of 530 nm green and 660 nm light for the time window of from0 seconds to about 2000 seconds, but the effectiveness of the differentsources diverges thereafter. Without intending to be bound by anyparticular theory or explanation of this phenomenon, it is suggestedthat NO binds to Hb-NO at multiple sites, and that removal of a secondor subsequent NO molecule from Hb-NO may require more energy thanremoval of a first NO molecule, perhaps due to a change in shape of theHb-NO after removal of a first NO molecule.

In certain embodiments, anti-inflammatory light having a first peakwavelength is impinged on living tissue, and ES increasing or ESreleasing light that includes light having a second peak wavelength isimpinged on the living tissue, and furthermore a light having a thirdpeak wavelength (i.e., ES releasing or ES increasing light) may beimpinged on the living tissue. In certain embodiments, the light havinga third peak wavelength may be provided at substantially the same timeas (or during a time window overlapping at least one time window of) oneor both of the anti-inflammatory and the ES increasing and/or ESreleasing light.

In certain embodiments, the light having a third peak wavelength differsfrom each of the first peak wavelength and the second peak wavelength byat least 10 nm. In certain embodiments, the light having a third peakwavelength exceeds the second peak wavelength by at least 20 nm. Incertain embodiments, the light having a third peak wavelength providesan irradiance in a range of from 5 mW/cm² to 60 mW/cm², or between 60and 100 mW/cm², or between 100 and 200 mW/cm², or even higher. Withrespect to certain tissues and certain wavelengths, irradiances up to 1W/cm² can be applied without causing significant damage to the tissues.If the light is pulsed, the irradiance can be applied at a significantlyhigher range, so long as the average irradiance falls within theseranges, and causes minimal damage to the tissue to which it is applied.The irradiance in a pulse setting may be as low as 0.1 W/cm² up to 10W/cm², or even higher.

In certain embodiments, the anti-inflammatory light is in a range offrom about 630 nm to 670 nm (e.g., including specific wavelengths ofabout 630 nm and about 660 nm) may be useful to provideanti-inflammatory effects and/or to promote vasodilation.Anti-inflammatory effects may be useful in treating disorders,particularly microbial disorders that result in inflammation of thenasal cavity, or in the mouth.

Antiviral doses of light can be administered in a range of from 5 mW/cm²to 60 mW/cm², about 60 to about 100 mW/cm² or about 100 to about 200mW/cm². With respect to certain tissues and certain wavelengths,irradiances up to 1 W/cm² can be applied without causing significantdamage to the tissues. If the light is pulsed, the irradiance can beapplied at a significantly higher range, so long as the averageirradiance falls within these ranges, and causes minimal damage to thetissue to which it is applied. The irradiance in a pulse setting may beas low as 0.1 W/cm² up to 10 W/cm², or even higher.

For visible light, roughly 400 to 700 nm, phototherapy has beensuggested to provide therapeutic benefits which include increasingcirculation (e.g., by increasing formation of new capillaries);stimulating the production of collagen; stimulating the release ofadenosine triphosphate (ATP); enhancing porphyrin production; reducingexcitability of nervous system tissues; modulating fibroblast activity;increasing phagocytosis; inducing thermal effects; stimulating tissuegranulation and connective tissue projections; reducing inflammation;and stimulating acetylcholine release

In certain embodiments, endogenous-store increasing light 230 mayinclude a peak wavelength in a range of from 500 nm to 900 nm, or in arange of from 490 nm to 570 nm, or in a range of from 510 nm to 550 nm,or in a range of from 520 nm to 540 nm, or in a range of from 525 nm to535 nm, or in a range of from 528 nm to 532 nm, or in a range of about530 nm. The wavelength at 660 nm may be both anti-inflammatory, andNO-releasing.

FIG. 7 is an illustration of an exemplary configuration 700 ofillumination device 102 that is operable to induce biological effects inoverlapping treatment zones 730 and 740 of the body tissue 104 byphotomodulation. By way of example, the light emitter(s) 120 may supplyphotons of a first energy and/or peak wavelength (e.g., light 710) tothe body tissue 104 to stimulate enzymatic generation of nitric oxide toincrease endogenous stores of nitric oxide in treatment zone 730 and thelight emitter(s) 120 may also supply photons of a second energy to thebody tissue 104 and/or peak wavelength (e.g., light 720) in a regionwithin or overlapping the treatment zone 730 to trigger release ofnitric oxide from endogenous stores, thereby creating the treatment zone740. In certain embodiments, sequential or simultaneous impingement ofincreasing wavelengths of light (e.g., nitric-oxide modulating light 710and/or nitric-oxide modulating light 720) may serve to “push” a nitricoxide diffusion zone deeper within body tissue 104 than might otherwisebe obtained by using a single (e.g., long) wavelength of light. Asillustrated, the treatment zones 730 and 740 may be provided atdifferent depths within the body tissue 104. The light emitter(s) 120may further supply photons of additional energies and/or peakwavelengths to the same or different treatment zones, including atdifferent depths within the body tissue 104. As with previousembodiments, while examples are provided in the context of nitric-oxidemodulating light, the illumination device 102 may be configured toinduce any of the previously-described biological effects in thetreatment zones 730, 740. In this regard, the light 710 may be providedat a first depth, the light 720 may be provided at a second depth thatgreater than the first depth within the body tissue 104. One or moreadditional light emissions may further be supplied at further depthswithin the body tissue 104. In certain embodiments, the treatment zones730 and 740 may be provided at substantially different depths within thebody tissue 104. In further embodiments, the light 710 may be configuredto provide a first biological effect, the light 720 may be configured toprovide a second biological effect, and any additional light may beconfigured to provide biological effects that are the same or differentthan either of the first or second biological effects.

FIG. 8 is a spectral diagram showing intensity versus wavelength forexemplary nitric-oxide modulating light 710 and 720. In this example,the nitric-oxide modulating light 710 is illustrated as having a peakintensity 814 at a peak wavelength 804, the nitric-oxide modulatinglight 720 is illustrated as having a peak intensity 814 at a peakwavelength 810. In these examples, peak wavelength 804 may be anywavelength within a range from wavelength 802 to wavelength 806, andpeak wavelength 810 may be any wavelength within a range from wavelength808 to wavelength 812.

FIG. 9 is an illustration of an exemplary configuration 900 ofillumination device 102 having additional light emitter(s) 910 operableto emit light 920. As illustrated, the additional light emitter(s) 910may be configured to provide emissions to the treatment are 140 from adifferent emission angle than the light emitter(s) 120. For example, thelight emitter(s) 120 may be configured with an emission angle of about90 degrees relative to a surface of the treatment area 140 while thelight emitter(s) 910 may be configured with any emission angle that isdifferent from 90 degrees. In other configurations, the light emitter(s)910 may be provided in a same location to provide a same emission angleto the treatment area 140 as the light emitter(s) 120. In someembodiments, light 920 may represent light that does not substantiallymodulate nitric oxide within body tissue 104. Examples of light 920 mayinclude, without limitation, vasculature-controlling light forcontrolling blood flow within body tissue 104, microbe-controlling lightfor controlling biological activity of microbes on body tissue 104including inactivating microorganisms that are in a cell-freeenvironment and/or inhibiting replication of microorganisms that are ina cell-associated environment, anti-inflammatory light for reducinginflammation in body tissue 104, upregulating a local immune response,and/or any combination thereof.

FIG. 10 is an illustration of an exemplary configuration 1000 ofillumination device 102 having a camera sensor 1010 for acquiring imagesof treatment area 140 at one or more wavelengths. In some embodiments,the images may be analyzed to (1) monitor how treatment area 140responds to light therapy, (2) monitor how much light treatment area 140is exposed to, (3) monitor inflammation of treatment area 140, and/or(4) track which portions of body tissue 104 have or are being treated.In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 10, camera 1010 may acquire imagesof treatment area 140 at the same wavelengths as the light 130. In analternative configuration 1100 illustrated in FIG. 11, illuminationdevice 102 may include additional light emitter(s) 1110 for illuminatingtreatment area 140 with imaging light 1120, which may have wavelengthsthat differ from those of the light 130. As illustrated, the additionallight emitter(s) 1110 may be configured to provide emissions to thetreatment are 140 from a different emission angle than the lightemitter(s) 120. In other configurations, the additional light emitter(s)1110 may be provided in a same location to provide a same emission angleto the treatment area 140 as the light emitter(s) 120.

The systems and devices described herein may be configured to treattissues within a variety of body cavities. For example, the systems anddevices described herein may be configured to treat, prevent, and/orreduce the biological activity of pathogens present in the oral cavityand/or auditory canal (i.e., mouth, nose and ears), as well as thethroat, larynx, pharynx, oropharynx, trachea, and/or esophagus.Representative types of light delivery devices that can be used incarrying out the methods, and/or light delivery devices describedherein, include devices that can be used to deliver light to (and/orthat can be positioned in or pass through) any part or parts ofpatients' mouth, nose and ears, as well as the throat, larynx, pharynx,oropharynx, trachea and/or esophagus. In certain embodiments, exemplaryillumination devices are provided that are configured to emit safe,visible light, including but not limited to light with a peak wavelengthin a range from 400 nm to 490 nm to eliminate invading respiratorypathogens in and around the oropharynx and to stimulate host defenses insurrounding tissues.

Examples include, but are not limited to, light emission devices (e.g.,shaped and sized so as to be inserted or insertable into a patient'soral cavity, such as the nasal cavity, and/or the auditory canal),scopes, such as ophthalmoscopes, with light emitting element(s) and/orlight delivery component(s), tubes with light emitting element(s) and/orlight delivery component(s), and the like. In various embodiments, thelight source may be a wand, flashlight, ophthalmoscope, or light panel.

Light emission devices that are shaped and sized so as to be inserted orinsertable into patients' mouths and/or nasal cavities include generallyany device that is suitable for insertion into a patient's mouth and/ornasal cavity and that is capable of emitting light having desiredcharacteristics. Examples include panels, which can be flat or curved,wands, flashlights, headphones with a light source in addition to or inplace of speakers, scopes, tubes and intra-oral devices. Each of thesedevices may include a light emitting source, such as LEDs, OLEDs, SLDs,lasers, and combinations thereof, to shine light into the oral cavity,auditory canal, and the like.

FIG. 12 is an illustration of an exemplary configuration 1200 ofillumination device 102. In this configuration, illumination device 102may be sized and shaped to fit partially or fully within a body cavity1210. FIG. 13 illustrates an exemplary configuration 1300 ofillumination device 102 having a light guide 1320. In this embodiment,light emitter(s) 120 may be operable to produce the light 130 outside ofa body cavity 1310, and light guide 1320 may deliver the light 130 fromlight emitter(s) 120 to treatment area 140 within body cavity 1310.Light guide 1320 may include any light delivery component (such as fiberoptic cables, waveguides, lenses, and the like) operable to deliver thelight to living tissue within a body cavity. Light guide 1320 may beconstructed from a thermally and/or electrically insulating material. Incertain embodiments, light guide 1320 may be configured to minimizeinternal absorption of the light, maximize efficient transmission of thelight, and/or maximize internal reflection of the light.

Light guide 1320 may be suitably shaped based on the body cavity it willbe inserted into. For example, light guide 1320 may be shaped to conformto or fit within at least one of a nasal cavity, an ear cavity, a throatcavity, a laryngeal cavity, a pharyngeal cavity, a tracheal cavity, anesophageal cavity, a urethral cavity, a vaginal cavity, or a cervicalcavity. In one embodiment, body cavity 1310 may be an oral cavity, andlight guide 1320 may be shaped to fit through a mouth and guide thelight 130 to living tissue within the oral cavity. In at least oneembodiment, light guide 1320 may have a length within a range of about85 mm to about 115 mm and a width within a range of about 10 mm to about20 mm. As with previous embodiments, while examples are provided in thecontext of the light, the illumination device 102 and the light guide1320 may be configured to induce any of the previously-describedbiological effects in the treatment area 140 within the body cavity1310.

Certain embodiments of devices for use in carrying out the methodsdescribed herein (and certain embodiments of the devices describedherein) may include one or more features and/or components to scatterlight or enhance scattering of light. Representative examples of suchfeatures and components include (1) digital light processors (e.g.,which can be positioned at the end of a fiber optic element anddisseminate the light exiting the fiber optic element, e.g., 320 degreesspherically), (2) light diffusion and/or scattering materials (e.g.,zinc oxide, silicon dioxide, titanium dioxide, etc.), (3) textured lightscattering surfaces, (4) patterned light scattering surfaces, and/or (5)phosphors or other wavelength-conversion materials (which tend tore-emit light spherically). In certain embodiments, low-absorption lightscattering particles, liquids, and/or gases can be positioned inside alow-absorption element that prevents the particles, liquids and/or gasesfrom escaping.

FIGS. 14 and 15 illustrate respective side and front views of anexemplary handheld configuration 1400 of illumination device 102 fordelivering light to living tissue within or near a user's oral cavity,including the oropharynx. In various aspects, the light may beconfigured to induce one or more of the previously-described biologicaleffects within or near the user's oral cavity, including at least one ofinactivating microorganisms that are in a cell-free environment,inhibiting replication of microorganisms that are in a cell-associatedenvironment, upregulating a local immune response, stimulating enzymaticgeneration of nitric oxide to increase endogenous stores of nitricoxide, releasing nitric oxide from endogenous stores of nitric oxide,and inducing an anti-inflammatory effect. In FIGS. 14 and 15,illumination device 102 may include an outer housing 1402 for containingand protecting one or more of the light emitter(s), the emitter-drivingcircuitry, and/or the one or more sensors as previously-described. Insome embodiments, outer housing 1402 may include a hand grip 1404, abutton 1406 for energizing the illumination device 102 and/or lightemitter(s) 120, and a port 1408 for charging illumination device 102and/or accessing or updating data stored to illumination device 102. Asshown in FIG. 14, the light guide 1320 may have a bent profile suitablysized and shaped for insertion into a user's oral cavity. In someembodiments, the length of light guide 1320 may be sufficient to conveylight from outside of the user's oral cavity to the back of a user'soral cavity and/or at or near the oropharynx. In some embodiments, aconical shield 1410 having an oval opening 1502 may be affixed orremovably attached to light-emitting end 1504 of light guide 1320. Insome embodiments, illumination device 102 may include a positioningplate 1412 with which a user of illumination device 102 may gauge properinsertion depth of light guide 1320 and/or upper and lower bite guards1414 for protecting light guide 1410 and/or enabling a user to securelight guide 1320 by biting against bite guards 1414. In someembodiments, positioning plate 1412 may, when touching an outer surfaceof a user's mouth, help index a light-transmissive surface of lightguide 1320 at an appropriate depth within the user's oral cavity. In oneembodiment, positioning plate 1412 may index light guide 1320 at a depthwithin a user's oral cavity at which an area of tissue exposed to thelight 130 is equal to about 25 cm2. In one embodiment, positioning plate1412 may index light guide 1320 at a depth within a user's oral cavityat which an irradiance of the light 130 onto tissue is less than about160 mW/cm2.

FIGS. 16-18 illustrate another exemplary handheld configuration 1600 ofillumination device 102 for delivering light to living tissue within ornear a user's oral cavity, including the oropharynx. FIG. 16 is a sideview of the illumination device 102. In these figures, illuminationdevice 102 may include an outer housing 1602 for containing andprotecting one or more of the light emitter(s), the emitter-drivingcircuitry, and/or one or more of the sensors. In some embodiments,illumination device 102 may include a hand grip 1604 and/or a button1606 for energizing illumination device 102 and/or light emitter(s) 120.As shown in FIG. 16-18, illumination device 102 may include a straightlight-guide assembly 1608 suitably sized and shaped for insertion into auser's oral cavity. As best illustrated in the exploded view of FIG. 17,the light-guide assembly 1608 of FIG. 16 may include a mouthpiecehousing 1610 surrounding and protecting light guide 1320. Mouthpiecehousing 1610 may be formed from any suitable transparent or opaquematerial. Mouthpiece housing 1610 may have a hexagonal hollow core 1702shaped to accept light guide 1320 having a similar cross-sectionalshape. In some embodiments, a retaining ferrule 1704 may be affixed tolight guide 1320. In some embodiments, illumination device 102 mayinclude an adjustable positioning plate 1612 with which a user ofillumination device 102 may gauge proper insertion depth of light guide1320. In some embodiments, positioning plate 1612 may be repositionableat any one of notches 1614 integrated into mouthpiece housing 1610. Insome embodiments, positioning plate 1612 may, when touching an outersurface of a user's mouth, help index a light-transmissive surface oflight guide 1320 at an appropriate depth within the user's oral cavity.As shown in the front view of FIG. 18, the hand grip 1604 may beremovable and may allow access to a battery 1802 within the illuminationdevice 102.

FIG. 19 illustrates another exemplary handheld configuration 1900 ofillumination device 102 for delivering light to living tissue within ornear a user's oral cavity, including the oropharynx. In this figure,illumination device 102 may include an outer housing 1902 for containingand protecting one or more of the light emitter(s), the emitter-drivingcircuitry, and/or the one or more sensors as previously described. Inthis embodiment, light guide 1320 may have a tapered profile and mayinclude a rounded light-emitting tip 1904 and exposed light-emittingsides 1906.

FIG. 20 illustrates another exemplary handheld configuration 2000 ofillumination device 102 for delivering light to living tissue within ornear a user's oral cavity, including the oropharynx. In this embodiment,illumination device 102 may include an outer housing 2002 for containingand protecting one or more of the light emitter(s) 120, emitter-drivingcircuitry 110, a fan 2004, and a heatsink 2006 coupled to lightemitter(s). In some embodiments, outer housing 2002 may include one ormore vents 2008 through which fan 2004 may draw air over heatsink 2006.As shown in FIG. 20, light guide 1320 may have a bent profile suitablysized and shaped for insertion into a user's oral cavity. In someembodiments, the length of light guide 1320 may be sufficient to conveylight from outside of the user's oral cavity to the back of a user'soral cavity and/or to the oropharynx. In some embodiments, illuminationdevice 102 may include a butt dome cap 2010.

FIG. 21A-21E illustrate other exemplary configurations of illuminationdevice 102 for delivering the light to tissue in an internal cavity(e.g., vaginal cavity) of a patient. In the embodiment illustrated inFIG. 21A, illumination device 102 may include a body 2101 that may berigid, semi-rigid, or articulated. A treatment head 2103 may includetherein or thereon one or more light-emitting features 2105, which maybe formed from or encapsulated in silicone or another suitable lighttransmissive material. In certain embodiments, light-emitting features2105 may represent light emitter(s) 120 encapsulated within treatmenthead 2103. In an alternative embodiment, light emitter(s) 120 may beexternal to body 2101, and body 2101 and treatment head 2103 may formall or a portion of light guide 1320. In this embodiment, lightemissions of light emitter(s) 120 may be transmitted within body 2101and may exit treatment head 2103 at apertures or positions correspondingto light-emitting features 2105.

In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 21B, illumination device 102 mayinclude a concave light emitting surface 2114 including one or morelight-emitting features 2115 for delivering the light to cervical tissueof a patient according to one embodiment. In this embodiment,illumination device 102 may include a body 2111 that may be rigid,semi-rigid, or articulated. A joint 2112 may be arranged between body2111 and a treatment head 2113. The treatment head 2113 may havearranged therein or thereon the one or more light-emitting features2115, which may be formed from or encapsulated in silicone or anothersuitable light transmissive material. In certain embodiments,light-emitting features 2115 may represent light emitter(s) 120encapsulated within treatment head 2113. In an alternative embodiment,light emitter(s) 120 may be external to body 2111, and body 2111, joint2112, and treatment head 2113 may form all or a portion of light guide1320. In this embodiment, light emissions of light emitter(s) 120 may betransmitted through body 2111, joint 2112, and treatment head 2113 andmay exit treatment head 2113 at apertures or positions corresponding tolight-emitting features 2115. FIG. 21C illustrates illumination device102 of FIG. 21B inserted into a vaginal cavity 2150 to deliver light tocervical tissue 2155 of a patient proximate to a cervical opening 2156.The concave light emitting surface 2114 may be configured toapproximately match a convex profile of the cervical tissue 2155.

In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 21D, illumination device 102 mayinclude a light emitting surface 2124 with a protruding probe portion2126 for delivering light to cervical tissue of a patient. The probeportion 2126 may include light-emitting features 2125 arranged todeliver the light into a cervical opening. In this embodiment,illumination device 102 may include a body 2121 that may be rigid,semi-rigid, or articulated. A joint 2122 may be arranged between body2121 and a treatment head 2123. The treatment head 2123 may havearranged therein or thereon the one or more light-emitting features2125, which may be formed from or encapsulated in silicone or anothersuitable light transmissive material. In certain embodiments,light-emitting features 2125 may represent light emitter(s) 120encapsulated within treatment head 2123. In an alternative embodiment,light emitter(s) 120 may be external to body 2121, and body 2121, joint2122, and treatment head 2123 may form all or a portion of light guide1320. In this embodiment, light emissions of light emitter(s) 120 may betransmitted through body 2121, joint 2122, and treatment head 2123 andmay exit treatment head 2123 at apertures or positions corresponding tolight-emitting features 2125. FIG. 21E illustrates illumination device102 of FIG. 21D inserted into a vaginal cavity 2150 to deliver light tocervical tissue 2155 of a patient proximate and within to a cervicalopening 2156. The primary light emitting surface 2124 may be arranged toimpinge light on cervical tissue bounding the vaginal cavity 2150,whereas the probe portion 2126 may be inserted into the cervical opening2156 to deliver additional light therein to increase the amount ofcervical tissue subject to receipt of the light for addressing one ormore conditions including pathogen (e.g., HPV) neutralization.

Light guides according to principles of the present disclosure may beshaped in a variety of ways depending on the application. Referring toFIGS. 22A and 22B, the light guide 1320 may have various profiles andcross-sectional areas. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 22A, lightguide 1320 may have a straight profile allowing at least some of thelight from light emitter(s) 120 to enter hexagonal endface 2202 and exithexagonal endface 2204 without being internally reflected. In theembodiment illustrated in FIG. 22B, light guide 1320 may have a bentprofile. In this embodiment, light guide 1320 may have a bend 2210 thatcauses all of the light from light emitter(s) 120 entering circularendface 2206 and exiting circular endface 2208 to be internallyreflected. In certain embodiments, bend 2210 may cause light 130 to exitlight guide 1320 in a mixed and/or homogenized state.

Referring to FIGS. 23A-23E, light guide 1320 may have various profiles.In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 23A, light guide 1320 may have astraight profile allowing at least some of the light from lightemitter(s) 120 to enter endface 2302 and exit endface 2304 without beinginternally reflected. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 23B, lightguide 1320 may have a bent profile. In this embodiment, light guide 1320may have a bend 2306 that causes all of the light from light emitter(s)120 entering endface 2308 and exiting endface 2310 to be internallyreflected. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 23C, light guide 1320may have a tapered profile having an endface 2312 through which lightfrom light emitter(s) 120 enters light guide 1320 that is relativelylarger than an endface 2314 through which light from light emitter(s)120 exits light guide 1320. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 23D,light guide 1320 may have a uptapered profile having an endface 2316through which light from light emitter(s) 120 enters light guide 1320that is relatively smaller than an endface 2318 through which light fromlight emitter(s) 120 exits light guide 1320. In the embodimentillustrated in FIG. 23E, light guide 1320 may have a 90-degree bentprofile. In this embodiment, light guide 1320 may have a 90-degree bend2320 that causes all of the light from light emitter(s) 120 enteringendface 2322 and exiting endface 2324 to be internally reflected.

Referring to FIGS. 24A-24C, light guide 1320 may have various additionalprofiles. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 24A, light guide 1320may have a bent profile. In this embodiment, light guide 1320 may havemultiple bends (e.g., bends 2402, 2404, and 2406) that cause all of thelight from light emitter(s) 120 entering endface 2408 and exitingendface 2410 to be internally reflected. In the embodiment illustratedin FIG. 24B, light guide 1320 may have a bulbous profile having a flatendface 2412 through which light from light emitter(s) 120 enters lightguide 1320 that is relatively smaller than a bulbous endface 2414through which light from light emitter(s) 120 exits light guide 1320. Inthe embodiment illustrated in FIG. 24C, light guide 1320 may have acurved profile. In this embodiment, light guide 1320 may have a uniformcurvature that causes all of the light from light emitter(s) 120entering endface 2416 and exiting endface 2418 to be internallyreflected.

Referring to FIGS. 25A-25C, light guide 1320 may be tapered and/oruptapered in multiple dimensions. In this embodiment, light guide 1320may have a tapered profile in the dimension illustrated in FIG. 25A andan uptapered profile in the dimension illustrated in FIG. 25C. Incertain embodiments, a circular surface area of endface 2502 may begreater than, less than, or equal to an elliptical surface area ofendface 2504.

In some embodiments, light guide 1320 may have a split configuration. Inthese embodiments, light guide 1320 may have a different number oflight-entering endfaces and light-exiting endfaces. For example, in theembodiment illustrated in FIGS. 26A-26C, light guide 1320 may include asingle light-entering endface 2602 and two light-exiting endfaces 2604.In certain embodiments, a surface area of light-entering endface 2602may be greater than, less than, or equal to a surface area oflight-exiting endfaces 2604.

Light guides of the present disclosure may include cross-sectional areasand/or endfaces with various shapes. For example, in the embodimentillustrated in FIG. 27A, light guide 1320 may have a circularcross-sectional area and a circular endface 2702. In the embodimentillustrated in FIG. 27B, light guide 1320 may have a hexagonalcross-sectional area and a hexagonal endface 2704. In the embodimentillustrated in FIG. 27C, light guide 1320 may have an ellipticalcross-sectional area and an elliptical endface 2706. In the embodimentillustrated in FIG. 27D, light guide 1320 may have a rectangularcross-sectional area and a rectangular endface 2708. In the embodimentillustrated in FIG. 27E, light guide 1320 may have a pentagonalcross-sectional area and a pentagonal endface 2710. In the embodimentillustrated in FIG. 27F, light guide 1320 may have an octagonalcross-sectional area and an octagonal endface 2712. In the embodimentillustrated in FIG. 27G, light guide 1320 may have an ovalcross-sectional area and an oval endface 2714. In the embodimentillustrated in FIG. 27H, light guide 1320 may have a triangularcross-sectional area and a triangular endface 2716. In the embodimentillustrated in FIG. 27I, light guide 1320 may have a semicircularcross-sectional area and a semicircular endface 2718.

Light guides of the present disclosure may have uniformly shapedcross-sectional areas and similarly shaped endfaces. For example, in theembodiment illustrated in FIG. 28A, the light guide 1320 may havecircular endfaces 2802 and 2804 with similar shapes and sizes. In otherembodiments, the light guide 1320 may have differently shapedcross-sectional areas and differently shaped endfaces. For example, inthe embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 27J and 28B, the light guide 1320may have a hexagonal endface 2720 and a circular endface 2722. In thisembodiment, the cross-sectional area of the light guide 1320 may behexagonal, circular, and/or a combination of hexagonal and circular.

Light guides of the present disclosure may include endfaces with varioustypes of surfaces. For example, in the embodiments illustrated in FIGS.28A and 28B, light guide 1320 may have substantially flat endfaces. Inthe embodiment illustrated in FIG. 28C, light guide 1320 may have anendface with an irregularly shaped surface 2806. In the embodimentillustrated in FIG. 28D, light guide 1320 may have an endface with aconical surface 2808. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 28E, lightguide 1320 may have an endface with a multifaceted surface 2810. In theembodiment illustrated in FIG. 28F, light guide 1320 may have an endfacewith a flat surface 2812. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 28G,light guide 1320 may have an endface with a convex surface 2814. In theembodiment illustrated in FIG. 28H, light guide 1320 may have an endfacewith a concave surface 2816. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 28I,light guide 1320 may have an endface with a rounded surface 2818. In theembodiment illustrated in FIG. 28J, light guide 1320 may have an endfacewith a chamfered surface 2820. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG.28K, light guide 1320 may have an endface with an angled surface 2822.

Light guides of the present disclosure may have one or more cores, andeach core of light guide 1320 may be cladded or uncladded and/orbuffered or unbuffered. For example, in the embodiment illustrated inFIGS. 29A and 29B, light guide 1320 may include a single uncladded andunbuffered circular core 2902 having a circular cross-sectional area2904. In at least one embodiment, the index of refraction of light guide1320 may be uniform across cross-sectional area 2904. In the embodimentillustrated in FIG. 29C, light guide 1320 may include a uncladded andunbuffered square core 2906 having a square cross-sectional area 2908.In at least one embodiment, the index of refraction of light guide 1320may be uniform across cross-sectional area 2908. In the embodimentillustrated in FIG. 29E, light guide 1320 may include a circular core2910 surrounded by a cladding 2912. In at least one embodiment, circularcore 2910 may be designed to have a higher index of refraction than thatof cladding 2912, which may cause total internal reflection of light incircular core 2910. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 29F, lightguide 1320 may include a circular core 2914 surrounded by a cladding2916. In at least one embodiment, cladding 2916 may be surrounded by anadditional cladding or buffer 2918. In some embodiments, circular core2914 may be designed to have a higher index of refraction than cladding2916. Additionally, cladding 2916 may be designed to have a higher indexof refraction than cladding 2918, which may cause more efficient totalinternal reflection of light in circular core 2914.

In the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 30A-30C, light guide 1320 mayinclude multiple fibers 3002. In some embodiments, multiple fibers 3002may be encapsulated in a flexible or rigid buffer 3004. If buffer 3004is formed from a flexible material and multiple fibers 3002 areflexible, light guide 1320 may also be flexible and able to take onvarious bent shapes (e.g., the bent shape illustrated in FIG. 30C). Insome embodiments, each of multiple fibers 3002 may be coupled to adifferent one of light emitter(s) 120. In other embodiments, two or moreof multiple fibers 3002 may be coupled to the same light emitter(s) 120.In certain embodiments, one or more of multiple fibers 3002 may beadditionally or alternatively coupled to an optical sensor.

FIG. 31A illustrates several exemplary multicore configurations of thelight guide 1320 in which one or more cores 3102 are coupled to lightemitter(s) 120 while one or more other cores 3104 are coupled to anoptical sensor 3106. In an alternative embodiment, cores 3102 may becoupled to optical sensor 3106, and cores 3104 may be coupled to lightemitter(s) 120. FIGS. 31B-31D illustrates exemplary cross-sectionalareas of cores 3102 and 3104. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 31B,cross-sectional areas 3108 and 3110 may represent the cross-sectionalareas of cores 3102 and 3104, respectively. In the embodimentillustrated in FIG. 31C, cross-sectional areas 3112 and 3114 mayrepresent the cross-sectional areas of cores 3102 and 3104,respectively. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 31D, cross-sectionalareas 3116 and 3118 may represent the cross-sectional areas of cores3102 and 3104, respectively.

In certain embodiments, light guides of the present disclosure may haveone or more hollow cores and/or hollow cross-sectional areas. Forexample, in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 32A, light guide 1320 mayhave a circular hollow core 3202 and/or a circular hollowcross-sectional area 3204. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 32B,light guide 1320 may have a rectangular hollow core 3206 and/or arectangular hollow cross-sectional area 3208. In the embodimentillustrated in FIG. 32C, light guide 1320 may have an elliptical hollowcore 3210 and/or an elliptical hollow cross-sectional area 3212. In theembodiment illustrated in FIG. 32D, light guide 1320 may have ahexagonal hollow core 3214 and/or a hexagonal hollow cross-sectionalarea 3216.

In certain embodiments, the hollow cores 3202, 3206, 3210, and/or 3214may have reflective surfaces, and the light guide 1320 may be configuredto deliver light via the hollow cores 3202, 3206, 3210, and/or 3214.Additionally or alternatively, light guide 1320 may be configured todeliver light via cross-sectional areas 3204, 3208, 3212, or 3216. Forexample, in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 33, light guide 1320 mayform a part of a ventilator and may include a hollow core 3302 throughwhich air 3304 may flow while the light 130 is transmitted from lightemitter(s) 120 through light guide 1320 to tissue within a patient'soral cavity. Similarly, in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 34, lightguide 1320 may include a hollow core 3402 through which air 3404 mayflow while the light 130 is transmitted from light emitter(s) 120through light guide 1320 to tissue within a patient's oral cavity. Inthis embodiment, light guide 1320 may additionally include a tube 3406through which fluids 3408 may be suctioned and/or drained while lightguide 1320 is inserted within a patient's mouth (or other body cavity).

FIG. 35 is an illustration of an exemplary u-shaped configuration 3500of the light guide 1320 for directing light towards a user's cheeks wheninserted into the user's mouth. As shown, light guide 1320 may includean inner surface 3502 with a reflective coating 3504. Reflective coating3504 may reflect the light 130 radially from light guide 1320 and/or ina direction transverse to the direction from which the light 130 enteredlight guide 1320.

In certain embodiments, the light guide 1320 may include a cap or shieldfor protecting light guide 1320 and/or for protecting tissue proximateto light guide 1320 from over exposure. In the embodiment illustrated inFIG. 36A, light guide 1320 may include a covering cap 3602. In theembodiment illustrated in FIG. 36B, light guide 1320 may include a buttdome cap 3604. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 36C, light guide1320 may include a butt flat cap 3606. In the embodiment illustrated inFIG. 36D, light guide 1320 may include a conical shield 3608 having anopening 3610 through which light may pass. In the embodiment illustratedin FIG. 36E, light guide 1320 may include an angled conical shield 3612having an opening 3614 through which light may pass. In the embodimentillustrated in FIG. 36F, light guide 1320 may include a one-sided shield3616 having an opening 3618 through which light may pass. In theembodiment illustrated in FIG. 36G, light guide 1320 may include aperforated shield 3620 having multiple openings 3624 through which lightmay pass.

Illumination devices according to the present disclosure may becontrolled in a variety of ways, for example illumination devices may beturned on or off via a simple on/off switch or button (e.g., via button1406 or button 1606 discussed above), although other control mechanismsmay also be provided. FIGS. 37 and 38 illustrate an exemplarylever-based switching mechanism 3700 for powering and/or controllingillumination device 102 after illumination device 102 has been insertedinto a user's mouth. In this embodiment, illumination device 102 mayinclude a power source 3702 that powers light emitter(s) 120 and/oremitter-driving circuitry 110, a switch 3704 that connects ordisconnects power source 3702 from light emitter(s) 120 and/oremitter-driving circuitry 110, and a pivot lever 3706 positioned toclose or open switch 3704. A spring 3708 may apply a force on pivotlever 3706 that, when not counteracted, causes pivot lever 3706 to openswitch 3704. The user may counteract the force applied by spring 3708 bybiting down on pivot lever 3706, thus causing pivot lever 3706 to closeswitch 3704 and enabling power source 3702 to apply power to lightemitter(s) 120 and/or emitter-driving circuitry 110, as shown in FIG.38.

Illumination devices according to the present disclosure may be at leastpartially controlled or managed by an application executing on anotherdevice. In one example, illumination device 102 may be controlled ormanaged by all or a portion of exemplary system 3900 illustrated in FIG.39. As shown in FIG. 39, system 3900 may include a server 3902 incommunication with a client-side device 3906 via a network 3904. In oneexample, server 3902 may include a server-side application 3908 formanaging, controlling, or communicating with illumination device 102. Inat least one embodiment, server-side application 3908 may be configuredto collect (e.g., as part of a clinical trial) usage data from multipleillumination devices.

Additionally or alternatively, client-side device 3906 may include aclient-side application 3910 for managing, controlling, or communicatingwith illumination device 102. In at least one embodiment, client-sideapplication 3910 may be configured to collect (e.g., as part of aclinical trial) sensor data from illumination devices and/or userfeedback.

Server 3902 and client-side device 3906 generally represent any type orform of computing device capable of reading computer-executableinstructions. Examples of server 3902 and client-side device 3906include, without limitation, laptops, tablets, desktops, servers,cellular phones, Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), multimedia players,embedded systems, wearable devices (e.g., smart watches, smart glasses,etc.), routers, switches, gaming consoles, combinations of one or moreof the same, or any other suitable computing device. In at least oneexample, client-side device 3906 may represent a user's computing deviceto which the user has paired illumination device 102.

Network 3904 generally represents any medium or architecture capable offacilitating communication or data transfer. Examples of network 3904include, without limitation, an intranet, a Wide Area Network (WAN), aLocal Area Network (LAN), a Personal Area Network (PAN), the Internet,Power Line Communications (PLC), a cellular network (e.g., a GlobalSystem for Mobile Communications (GSM) network), or the like. Network3904 may facilitate communication or data transfer using wireless orwired connections. In one embodiment, network 3904 may facilitatecommunication between server 3902 and either client-side device 3906 orillumination device 102.

FIG. 40 is a flow diagram of an exemplary computer-implemented method4000 for performing phototherapy operations based on sensormeasurements. The steps shown in FIG. 40 may be performed by anysuitable computer-executable code and/or computing system, including thesystem(s) illustrated in FIG. 39. In one example, each of the stepsshown in FIG. 40 may represent an algorithm whose structure includesand/or is represented by multiple sub-steps, examples of which will beprovided in greater detail below.

As illustrated in FIG. 40, at step 4010, one or more of the systemsdescribed herein may obtain a first set of measurements of livingtissue. For example, as illumination device according to any of thepreviously-described embodiments may obtain a temperature of a targetbody tissue via a temperature sensor and/or may capture one or moreimages of the target body tissue via a camera sensor. In at least oneembodiment, the illumination device may capture one or morevisible-light images, one or more infrared images, one or moreultraviolet images, one or more images measuring light within apredetermined range of wavelengths, and/or one or more images measuringlight within two or more different predetermined ranges of wavelengths.In some embodiments, one or more of the systems described herein may usea first set of measurements to establish a baseline measurement fromwhich the safety or efficacy of a subsequent phototherapy treatment maybe validated and/or the health of a user may be monitored.

At step 4020, one or more of the systems described herein may impinge,during a phototherapy treatment, the light onto the living tissue. Thenat step 4030, one or more of the systems described herein may obtain asecond set of measurements of the living tissue. In some embodiments,the second set of measurements may include the same types of measurementincluded in the first set of measurements. While the exemplarycomputer-implemented method 4000 is provided in the context of thelight, the principles disclosed are applicable to any light that mayinduce any of previously described biological effects.

At step 4040, one or more of the systems described herein may perform anoperation based on at least one of the first set of measurements and thesecond set of measurements. In one example, client-side application(e.g., 3910 of FIG. 39) may relay the first set of measurements and thesecond set of measurements from illumination device (e.g., 102 of FIG.39) to server-side application (e.g., 3908 of FIG. 39) for analysis. Inone embodiment, server-side application may use the first set ofmeasurements and/or the second set of measurements to validate thesafety or efficacy of impinging the light onto the living tissue basedon a comparison of the first set of measurements and the second set ofmeasurements.

In another example, the illumination device 102 and/or client-sideapplication 3910 as illustrated in FIG. 39 may adjust a parameter of asubsequent phototherapy treatment based on a comparison of the first setof measurements and the second set of measurements. For example, theillumination device 102 and/or the client-side application 3910 mayadjust a duration of the subsequent phototherapy treatment, anintensity, a peak wavelength, or a range of wavelengths of the light.

In some embodiments, the illumination device 102 may include one or morelight-blocking elements that prevent the light 130 from reachingportions of body tissue 104 not intended to receive the light 130 (e.g.,any portions of body tissue 104 not considered treatment area 140, suchas protected area 4150 in FIGS. 41 and 42). FIG. 41 is an illustrationof an exemplary configuration 4100 of illumination device 102 having alight-blocking light guide 4120. In this configuration, illuminationdevice 102 may be sized and shaped to fit partially or fully within abody cavity 4110. In this embodiment, light emitter(s) 120 may beoperable to emit the light 130 inside of body cavity 4110 along one ormore paths (e.g., paths 4130 and 4140), and light-blocking light guide4120 may be shaped to (1) allow the light 130 to travel along directpath 4130 to treatment area 140 but (2) prevent the light 130 fromtravelling along a blocked path 4140 to protected area 4150. FIG. 42illustrates an exemplary configuration 4200 of illumination device 102having a light-blocking light guide 4220. In this embodiment, lightemitter(s) 120 may be operable to the light 130 outside of a body cavity4210 along multiple paths (e.g., paths 4230 and 4240), andlight-blocking light guide 4220 may be shaped to (1) allow the light 130to travel along direct path 4230 to treatment area 140 within bodycavity 4210 but (2) prevent the light 130 from traveling along blockedpath 4240 to protected area 4150.

Light-blocking light guides 4120 and/or 4220 may include any lightblocking component operable to prevent light from reaching certainportions of a user's body by blocking, reflecting, or absorbing asubstantial amount of the light. In some examples, light-blocking lightguides 4120 and/or 4220 may include one or more hollow or transparentregions that allow the light to be transmitted freely through theregions and/or one or more solid, reflective, or opaque regions thatprevent the light from being freely transmitted through the region.Examples of light-blocking light guides 4120 and/or 4220 include,without limitation, hollow cylinders, tubes, pipes, shrouds, funnels,snoots, and collimators. In some examples, light-blocking light guides4120 and/or 4220 may perform additional functions, such as expanding abody cavity or spreading or displacing tissue. For example, themouthpieces and/or light guides illustrated in connection with FIGS.43-53 may include one or more light blocking regions (e.g., to preventportions of a user's cheeks or tongue from being exposed to the light.

Light-blocking light guide 4220 may be suitably shaped based on the bodycavity it will be inserted into. For example, light-blocking light guide4220 may be shaped to conform to or fit within at least one of a nasalcavity, an ear cavity, a throat cavity, a laryngeal cavity, a pharyngealcavity, a tracheal cavity, an esophageal cavity, a urethral cavity, avaginal cavity, or a cervical cavity. In one embodiment, body cavity4110 may be an oral cavity, and light-blocking light guide 4220 may beshaped to fit through a mouth and direct the light 130 to living tissuewithin the oral cavity.

FIGS. 43-52 illustrate various views of an exemplary handheldconfiguration 4300 of illumination device 102 for delivering light(e.g., nitric-oxide modulating light and/or light to induce any of thepreviously described biological effects) to living tissue within or neara user's oral cavity, including the oropharynx. As shown, illuminationdevice 102 may include an outer housing having (1) a housing 4302 forcontaining and protecting the light emitter(s) 120, (2) a housing 4304for containing and protecting at least light emitter-driving circuitry110, a button 4306 for energizing illumination device 102 and/or lightemitter(s) 120, and/or a carrier 4308, and (3) a housing 4310 forcontaining and protecting at least a battery 4312. In some embodiments,housing 4304 may be encased by a sleeve or overmolding 4314 having atactile element 4316 for engaging button 4306 and a port 4318 forcharging illumination device 102 and/or accessing data stored toillumination device 102. In the exploded view FIG. 46, light emitter(s)120 may be affixed to a printed circuit board 4320, which may be securedto housing 4302 by screws 4322 (or any other suitable fasteners).Additionally, illumination device 102 may include a lens 4324 for light130 into and/or near a user's oral cavity. In some embodiments, aretaining ring 4326 may secure lens 4324 to housing 4302. In thisexample, a lens washer 4328 may be positioned between retaining ring4326 and lens 4324, and a lens gasket 4330 may be positioned betweenlens 4324 and housing 4302. As shown, illumination device 102 mayinclude a light guide 4332 and a mouthpiece 4334 suitably sized andshaped for insertion into a user's oral cavity.

As shown in FIGS. 48A-48D, mouthpiece 4334 may include an outer surface4802 for interfacing or engaging with the surfaces of a user's oralcavity (e.g., the user's lips and cheeks), a biting surface 4804 forinterfacing with the user's teeth, and protrusions 4806 for engaging thebacks of the user's teeth. In some embodiments, outer surface 4802 mayapply an outward force on a user's lips and/or cheeks in order to expandthe user's oral cavity during a phototherapy treatment. In someembodiments, biting surface 4804 and/or protrusions 4806 may enable auser to secure illumination device 102 in the user's mouth by bitingagainst biting surface 4804. In some embodiments, mouthpiece 4334 mayhelp index illumination device 102 at an appropriate depth within theuser's oral cavity. In one embodiment, mouthpiece 4334 may indexillumination device 102 at a depth within a user's oral cavity at whichan area of tissue exposed to the light 130 is equal to about 25 cm2. Inone embodiment, mouthpiece 4334 may index light guide 1320 at a depthwithin a user's oral cavity at which an irradiance of the light ontotissue is less than about 160 mW/cm2. In this regard, the mouthpiece4334 may be referred to as a light guide positioner that is configuredto position and hold the light guide 4332 at least partially in or nearthe oral cavity to ensure that light emitting from the light emitter(s)120 exits the light guide 4332 in a suitable location for irradiating atarget tissue, e.g., the oropharynx. In at least some embodiments,mouthpiece 4334 may function to block the light from reaching portionsof a user's oral cavity and may be suitably shaped and sized for thatpurpose. In some embodiments, mouthpiece 4334 may be removable fromillumination device 102.

As shown in FIGS. 49A-49D, light guide 4332 may include a tonguedepressor 4900 for depressing a user's tongue when inserted into theuser's mouth. In some embodiments, tongue depressor 4900 may displacethe user's tongue to expose the back of the user's throat, theoropharynx (or another treatment area) to the light emitted by lightemitter(s) 120. Tongue depressor 4900 may have any suitable size andshape and may function to block the light from reaching a user's tongue.In some embodiments, light guide 4332 may include cylindrical walls 4902defining a light transmissive pathway 4904 through which the light maypass. In at least some embodiments, cylindrical walls 4902 may functionto block the light from reaching portions of a user's oral cavity andmay be suitably shaped and sized for that purpose. In some embodiments,light guide 4332 may be removable. In the embodiments illustrated inFIGS. 49A-49D, light guide 4332 may include securing tabs 4906 shaped tointerface with notches 5102 and 5104 of housing 4302. In the alternativeembodiment illustrated in FIG. 52, light guide 4332 may include securingnotches (e.g., notch 5204) shaped to securely engage correspondingprotrusions of housing 4302 (e.g., protrusion 5202).

In some embodiments, the mouthpiece 4334, which may also be referred toas a light guide positioner, and the light guide 4332 may be parts of asingle inseparable structure. Alternatively, the mouthpiece 4334 and thelight guide 4332 may be separable structures that are securely joinedtogether to form removable assembly. In either case, the combination ofthe mouthpiece 4334 (e.g., the light guide positioner) and the lightguide 4332 may form a combined assembly that may be removably attachedto the illumination device 102. FIGS. 50A-50D illustrate an exemplaryremovable assembly 5000 of mouthpiece 4334 and light guide 4332. In thisembodiment, light guide 4332 may include securing protrusions 4908shaped to interface with corresponding notches of mouthpiece 4334 tofacilitate tool-less separation of the light guide 4332 from themouthpiece 4334.

FIGS. 51A, 51B, and 51C are respective side, front, and perspectiveviews of the illumination device 102 of FIG. 43 without the removableassembly 5000 of the mouthpiece 4334 and the light guide 4332 of FIGS.50A-50D, according to some embodiments. In certain embodiments, thesecuring tabs 4906 as illustrated in FIGS. 49A-49D may be configured tosnap fit or otherwise attach to the notches 5102 and 5104 of housing4302. In this regard, the mouthpiece 4334 and the light guide 4332 maybe easily removed from the illumination device 102 for cleaning and orreplacement.

FIG. 52 is a side view of another exemplary configuration 5200 of theexemplary illumination device 102 for embodiments where the mouthpiece4334 and the light guide 4332 may be easily removed from theillumination device 102. As illustrated, light guide 4332 may includesecuring notches (e.g., notch 5204) shaped to securely engagecorresponding protrusions of housing 4302 (e.g., protrusion 5202).

FIG. 53 illustrates an exemplary handheld configuration 5300 ofillumination device 102 for delivering the light to living tissue withinor near a user's oral cavity, including the oropharynx. As illustrated,the illumination device 102 may include an outer housing 5302 forcontaining and protecting one or more of the light emitter(s), theemitter-driving circuitry 110, and/or the one or more sensors aspreviously described. In some embodiments, the outer housing 5302 mayinclude a hand grip 5304, and a button 5306 for energizing theillumination device 102 and/or the light emitter(s). In someembodiments, the illumination device 102 may include a mouthpiece 5310for interfacing with a user's mouth, cheeks, and/or teeth and a tonguedepressor 5308 for displacing the user's tongue. In some examples,illumination device 102 may include a positioning plate 5312 with whicha user of illumination device 102 may gauge proper insertion depth ofillumination device 102 and/or upper and lower bite guards 5314 forenabling a user to secure illumination device 102 by biting against biteguards 5314. In some embodiments, positioning plate 5312 may, whentouching an outer surface of a user's mouth, help index illuminationdevice 102 at an appropriate depth within the user's oral cavity. In oneembodiment, positioning plate 5312 may index illumination device 102 ata depth within a user's oral cavity at which an area of tissue exposedto the light is equal to about 25 cm². In one embodiment, positioningplate 5312 may index light guide 1320 at a depth within a user's oralcavity at which an irradiance of the light onto tissue is less thanabout 160 mW/cm2.

While not illustrated in the drawings, it is noted that suitably sizedand shaped mouthpieces and/or light guides (similar to the mouthpiecesand light guides described in connection with FIGS. 43-53) may also beintegrated into the example configurations of illumination device 102illustrated in FIGS. 14-21. Moreover, the mouthpieces and light guidesdescribed in connection with FIGS. 43-53 may include some or all of thefeatures of light guide 1320.

FIGS. 54A-54E illustrate various views of an exemplary handheldconfiguration 5400 of the illumination device 102 for delivering light(e.g., nitric-oxide modulating light and/or light to induce any of thepreviously described biological effects) to living tissue within or neara user's oral cavity, including the oropharynx. FIG. 54A is a frontperspective view, FIG. 54B is a back perspective view, FIG. 54C is afront view, FIG. 54D is a side view, and FIG. 54E is a top view of theexemplary handheld configuration 5400 of the illumination device 102.The exemplary handheld configuration 5400 of FIGS. 54A-54E is similar tothe exemplary handheld configuration 4300 of FIGS. 43-52 as previouslydescribed, and the tongue depressor 4900 further defines a shape thatincludes a width at an end of the tongue depressor 4900 that is largerthan a corresponding width of the tongue depressor 4900 that is closerto the housing 4302. In this manner, the end of the tongue depressor4900 may be configured to depress a larger portion of a user's tonguewhen inserted into the user's mouth. Additionally, the housing 4302 mayform one or more features 4302′ that may provide heat dissipation forthe housing 4302. Similar features 4302′ are illustrated in FIG. 43, butare provided in a manner that wraps around multiple sides of the housing4302, while in the embodiment of FIGS. 54A-54E, the features 4302′ maybe provided along a back side of the housing 4302 with wrapping aroundto portions of the housing adjacent the light guide 4332.

Phototherapy as described herein may be administered to selectedportions of the oral cavity, auditory canal, throat, larynx, pharynx,oropharynx, trachea and/or esophagus, using appropriate devices, theselection of which depends on the location that the light is to beadministered. The treatment methods described herein can be carried outusing any light delivery device or devices that is/are capable ofdelivering light having the desired characteristics (e.g., wavelengthcharacteristics, radiant flux, duration, pulsing or non-pulsing,coherency, etc.) to desired regions.

In addition to the above-described illumination devices, representativetypes of light delivery devices that can be used in carrying outphototherapy, and/or light delivery devices described herein, includeany devices that can be used to deliver light to (and/or that can bepositioned in or pass through) any part or parts of patients' oralcavity, auditory canal, and the like. Examples include, but are notlimited to, light emission devices (e.g., shaped and sized so as to beinserted or insertable into patients' mouths and/or nasal cavities),scopes, such as ophthalmoscopes to reach the mouth, throat, ears andnose, bronchoscopes, for reaching deeper into the throat, and to thelarynx, pharynx, esophagus, trachea, and the like, tubes with lightemitting element(s) and/or light delivery component(s), and the like.

Examples include, but are not limited to, light emission devices (e.g.,shaped and sized so as to be inserted or insertable into patients' oralcavity, such as the nasal cavity, and/or the auditory canal), scopes,such as ophthalmoscopes, with light emitting element(s) and/or lightdelivery component(s), tubes with light emitting element(s) and/or lightdelivery component(s), and the like. In various embodiments, the lightsource is a wand, flashlight, ophthalmoscope, or light panel.

Light emission devices that are shaped and sized so as to be inserted orinsertable into patients' mouths and/or nasal cavities include generallyany device that is suitable for insertion into a patient's mouth and/ornasal cavity and that is capable of emitting light having desiredcharacteristics. Examples include panels, which can be flat or curved,wands, flashlights, headphones with a light source in addition to or inplace of speakers, scopes, tubes and intra-oral devices. Each of thesehas a light emitting source, such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs),OLEDs, superluminous diodes (SLDs), lasers, and combinations thereof, toshine light into the oral cavity, auditory canal, and the like.

Scopes comprising light emitting element(s) and/or light deliverycomponent(s) can be used in the methods described herein. Such scopesinclude any device suitable for insertion into any region (and/orthrough any region) of a patient's respiratory tract. At least one lightdelivery component and/or at least one light emitting element isdisposed within and/or supported by the scope.

Representative examples of suitable scopes include bronchoscopes,nasopharyngoscopes, fiberscopes, etc. Representative examples ofsuitable light delivery components include fiber optic devices and otherwaveguides.

In one particular embodiment, an ophthalmoscope is disclosed which,rather than permitting a physician from viewing the mouth, ears and noseof a patient, is outfitted with a light source, such as an LED, OLED,laser, and the like, which emits light at one or more specificantimicrobial wavelengths. In aspects of this embodiment, theophthalmoscope has attachments to focus the light on the ear and/ornose.

An ophthalmoscope is a handheld, typically battery-powered devicecontaining illumination and viewing optics intended to examine the media(cornea, aqueous, lens, and vitreous) and the retina of the eye.However, an ophthalmoscope also typically includes various attachmentsthat enable the device to be used to illuminate the ears, nares, mouthand throat.

One such attachment is an otoscope attachment, which allows the user toilluminate the ear canal and tympanic membrane.

Another type of attachment is a nasal speculum adapter (often used inconjunction with an otoscope attachment. When using the otoscopeattachment with a nasal speculum adapter, the device can illuminate thenares (nostrils) while maintaining a line of sight through the nasalpassages, one nasal passage at a time.

A bent arm illuminator is a handheld light that can be used toilluminate a patient's mouth and upper throat. It can also be used fortrans-illumination of the sinuses. Whereas a typical ophthalmoscope orbronchoscope includes an on/off switch, but not a timer, thebronchoscope described herein can include a timer, which allows the userto know when the treatment is completed. The timer can include differenttreatment times, based on the location the light is administered, thewavelength that is administered, and the like.

Certain embodiments of devices that pass through a patient's epiglottis(e.g., devices that comprise scopes and tubes that pass through apatient's mouth or nasal cavity, past the epiglottis and into thetrachea) can comprise a demand valve-type component. This is similar toa demand valve in a scuba diving device, and assists in keeping theepiglottis from blocking insertion of the device (e.g., scope or tube).

Tubes with light emitting element(s) and/or light delivery component(s),for example, LED, OLED, or laser light emitting or deliveringcomponents, can be used in the methods described herein. This includesany device that is suitable for insertion into any region (and/orthrough any region) of a patient's oral cavity, wherein at least onelight delivery component and/or at least one light emitting element isdisposed within and/or supported by the tube. In another embodiment, thetube includes light sources positioned at the front of the tube, and atvarious positions around the tube, so as to be able to simultaneouslyshine light to the throat, the roof of the mouth, the tongue, the gums,and the cheeks of the user. Representative examples of suitable tubesinclude tracheostomy tubes, endotracheal tubes and nasogastric tubes,and representative examples of tubes with light emitting element(s)and/or light delivery components(s). Specifically included are tubeswith at least one optical fiber and/or other waveguide disposed withinand/or supported by the tube, and with at least one light emittingelement positioned and oriented so as to feed light into the opticalfiber(s) and/or other waveguide(s).

In another aspect, the light source is a panel (i.e., a light panel),which can be straight or curved, and the user can be exposed to thelight by opening the mouth, for example, with a cheek retractor, andrather than hold the light source, the panel can be positioned such thatthe patient can sit down, or lie down, and be exposed to the panel. Thepanel can include a clip or a stand to facilitate orienting the panel sothat the user's mouth, nose and/or ears can be exposed to theantimicrobial light.

As noted above, devices for use in carrying out methods described herein(and certain embodiments of devices described herein) comprise at leastone light emitting element that is/are capable of delivering lighthaving the desired characteristics (e.g., wavelength characteristics,radiant flux, duration, pulsing or non-pulsing, coherency, etc.) todesired regions of a patient's respiratory tract. Wavelengthcharacteristics include saturation, wavelength spectra (e.g., range ofwavelengths, full width at half maximum values), dominant wavelength,and/or peak wavelength).

In certain embodiments, at least one of the light emitting element(s)is/are solid-state light emitting devices. Examples of solid state lightemitting devices include, but are not limited to, LEDs, OLEDs, SLDs,lasers, thin film electroluminescent devices, powderedelectroluminescent devices, field induced polymer electroluminescentdevices, and polymer light-emitting electrochemical cells.

While both LEDs and lasers are variable power light sources, LEDs aremore flexible in this regard. Lasers have a threshold current, belowwhich there is no power output, and above which the power increasesexponentially as more drive current is applied. LEDs, in contrast, beginemitting light at very low drive current and then emission is roughlylinear with increasing drive current. This advantage of LEDs over laserscan be important to supply sufficient flux to treat the targeteddisease, while not providing so much that it damages the tissue. Thisfeature can be particularly important in areas of the body, such as thelung, where the same medical device can be used to address different andcomplicated topologies.

While they are not a coherent source with a spectral width as narrow asa laser, LEDs can offer certain advantages over lasers inphotobiomodulation (PBM). These advantages are directly applicable toone component of PBM—absorption by photoacceptor molecules. LEDs aremore easily available over a wide range of wavelengths, from UV to IR,than lasers. In addition to being available over a wider wavelengthrange, LEDs are also more readily available at more discrete wavelengthswithin that range. LEDs are characterized by a broader spectral widththan lasers, and, because of this, absorption by a targeted molecule isless likely to be missed by incorrect choice of the emission wavelengthof the few nm wide laser. LEDs are also characterized by broader farfields than lasers, and this makes more uniform treatment of large areasmore straightforward than it is with lasers, whether by direct emissionor illumination of the target through other optical elements. Finally,from a pragmatic view, LEDs are more cost effective per mw emission,more readily available, and easier to use in optical systems thanlasers. Accordingly, in one embodiment, the treatment methods describedherein use LEDs as the source of light. In certain embodiments, one,some or all of the light emitting elements have full width at halfmaximum value of less than 25 nm (or less than 20 nm, or less than 15nm, or in a range of from 5 nm to 25 nm, or in a range of from 10 nm to25 nm, or in a range of from 15 nm to 25 nm).

In certain embodiments, different light emitting elements are containedin a single solid-state emitter package. In certain embodiments, lightemitting elements are arranged in an array or in two or more arrays. Incertain embodiments, light emitting elements comprise one or morewavelength conversion materials, examples of which include phosphormaterials, fluorescent dye materials, quantum dot materials, andfluorophore materials.

Certain embodiments of devices for use in carrying out methods describedherein (and certain embodiments of devices described herein) cancomprise a power supply circuit arranged to provide at least oneconditioned power signal for use by at least one of a microcontroller ofthe device.

Certain embodiments of devices for use in carrying out methods describedherein (and certain embodiments of devices described herein) cancomprise one or more features and/or components to scatter light orenhance scattering of light.

Persons of skill in the art are familiar with a variety of such featuresand components, and any of such features and components are within thescope of the present description.

Representative examples of such features and components include (1)digital light processors (e.g., which can be positioned at the end of afiber optic and disseminate the light exiting the fiber optic, e.g., 320degrees spherically), (2) light diffusion and/or scattering materials(e.g., zinc oxide, silicon dioxide, titanium dioxide, etc.), (3)textured light scattering surfaces, (4) patterned light scatteringsurfaces, (5) phosphors or other wavelength-conversion materials (whichtend to re-emit light spherically).

In certain embodiments, low-absorption light scattering particles,liquids, and/or gases can be positioned inside a low-absorption elementthat prevents the particles, liquids and/or gases from escaping.

In certain embodiments, light extraction features can be provided, andmay include different sizes and/or shapes. In certain embodiments, lightextraction features may be uniformly or non-uniformly distributed over aflexible printed circuit board. In certain embodiments, light extractionfeatures may include tapered surfaces. In certain embodiments, differentlight extraction features may include one or more connected portions orsurfaces. In certain embodiments, different light extraction featuresmay be discrete or spatially separated relative to one another. Incertain embodiments, light extraction features may be arranged in lines,rows, zig-zag shapes, or other patterns. In certain embodiments, one ormore wavelength conversion materials may be arranged on or proximate toone or more light extraction features.

Certain embodiments of devices for use in carrying out methods describedherein (and certain embodiments of devices described herein) cancomprise one or more sensors of any type. In certain embodiments,operation of methods disclosed herein may be responsive to one or moresignals generated by one or more sensors or other elements.

Various types of sensors can be employed, including temperature sensors,photo sensors, image sensors, proximity sensors, blood pressure or otherpressure sensors, chemical sensors, biosensors (e.g., heart ratesensors, body temperature sensors, sensors that detect presence orconcentration of chemical or biological species, or other conditions),accelerometers, moisture sensors, oximeters, such as pulse oximeters,current sensors, voltage sensors, and the like.

Other elements that may affect impingement of light and/or operation ofa device as disclosed herein include a timer, a cycle counter, amanually operated control element, such as an on-off switch, a wirelesstransmitter and/or receiver (as maybe embodied in a transceiver), alaptop or tablet computer, a mobile phone, or another portable digitaldevice. Wired and/or wireless communication between a device asdisclosed herein and one or more signal generating or signal receivingelements may be provided. In any of these aspects, the user can beexposed to the light at a sufficient power and for a sufficient time toresult in desired antimicrobial effects, while also not overexposing theuser to the light.

In certain embodiments, devices for use in carrying out methodsdescribed herein (and certain embodiments of devices described herein)can comprise one or more memory elements that are configured to storeinformation indicative of one or more sensor signals or any otherinformation.

Certain embodiments of devices for use in carrying out methods describedherein (and certain embodiments of devices described herein) cancomprise one or more communication modules configured to electronicallycommunicate with an electronic device external to the device.

Since the user may be unable to see the wavelengths that areadministered, because the user may be wearing eye protection, the lightsource, such as the bronchoscope, may provide an auditory or tactilesignal that the light treatment has terminated. In some aspects of theseembodiments, the light source can be controlled using an app. In otheraspects, the light source itself includes a timer, so the user can setthe time period that light is administered.

When subjects are exposed to light at antimicrobial wavelengths, it isimportant to protect their eyes from exposure to these wavelengths.There are several ways to do so. In one embodiment, where light at bluewavelengths or UV wavelengths is used, one can protect the subject'seyes with eye glasses, goggles, or eye shields, such as those used intanning beds, which filter out those wavelengths. In another embodiment,the eyes are covered with an opaque cover, which can be in the form ofgoggles, an eye mask, and the like.

Coatings which prevent users from being subjected to certain wavelengthsare well-known in the art. Examples include UV protective coatings,anti-blue coatings, and the like. In some embodiments, particularly withrespect to ophthalmic lenses and goggles, one of both main faces of thelenses/goggles can include an optical filter intended to reduce theunwanted light, such as blue light, and thus reduce any light-inducedphototoxic effects on the retina of a wearer. In one aspect, this isdefined in terms of ranges of wavelengths and angles of incidence. Asused herein, “ranging from x to y” means “within the range from x to y”,both limits x and y being included within this range.

Visible light to humans extends over a light spectrum ranging fromwavelengths of approximately 380 nanometers (nm) wavelength to 780 nm.The part of this spectrum, ranging from around 380 nm to around 500 nm,corresponds to a high-energy, essentially blue light. Many studiessuggest that blue light has phototoxic effects on human eye health, andespecially on the retina. One can limit exposure to these and otherwavelengths using lenses/goggles with an appropriate filter, whichprevents or limits the phototoxic blue light transmission to the retina.

Other filters efficiently transmit visible light at wavelengths higherthan 465 nm, so as to maintain good vision for the wearer, while notexposing the retina to damaging wavelengths. Accordingly, in oneembodiment, the lenses filter out blue light amount received by the eyein the wavelength range of from 420 nm to 450 nm, while enabling anoutstanding transmission within the wavelength range of from 465 nm to495 nm. One way to accomplish this is to use highly selective,narrow-band filters, which are typically composed of an overall thickstack, comprising a plurality of dielectric layers. Such filters can beapplied to the front main face of which an optical narrow-band filtersuch as previously described has been deposited. In this context, thefront main face of the ophthalmic lens is that main face of theophthalmic lens, which is the most distant from the spectacle wearer'seyes. By contrast, the main face of the ophthalmic lens, which is thenearest from the spectacle wearer's eyes is the back main face.

Even if the direct light incident on the front main faces of theophthalmic lenses is efficiently rejected through the reflection againstthe narrow-band filters deposited onto the front main faces, in somecases, indirect light originating from the wearer's background isreflected to the spectacle wearer's eyes. For this reason, it can bepreferred to use goggles, such as the types of tanning goggles usedalong with tanning beds.

Ideally, sufficient eye protection is matched to the wavelengths oflight that are used, such that the amount of phototoxic light, such asphototoxic blue light, reaching the wearer's retina can be significantlyreduced to safe levels. In one embodiment, glasses or goggles include anophthalmic lens having a front main face and a back main face, at leastone of both main faces comprising a filter, which provides the main facecomprising said filter with the following properties: an average bluereflectance factor (R_(m,B)) within a wavelength range of from 420 nm to450 nm, which is higher than or equal to 5%, for an angle of incidenceranging from 0° to 15°, a spectral reflectivity curve for an angle ofincidence ranging from 0° to 15°, such reflectivity curve having: amaximum reflectivity at a wavelength of less than 435 nm, and a fullwidth at half maximum (FWHM) higher than 80 nm, and for an angle ofincidence θ ranging from 0° to 15° and for an angle of incidence θ′ranging from 30° to 45°, a parameter Δ(θ,θ′) defined by the relationΔ(θ,θ′)=1−[R_(θ′)(435 nm)/R_(θ)(435 nm)], in such a way that thisparameter Δ(θ,θ′) is higher than or equal to 0.6, where: R_(θ)(435 nm)represents the reflectivity value of the main face comprising saidfilter, at a 435 nm-wavelength for the angle of incidence θ, andR_(θ′)(435 nm) represents the reflectivity value of the main facecomprising said filter at a 435 nm-wavelength for the angle of incidenceθ′.

In another embodiment, the present invention relates to an ophthalmiclens having a front main face and a back main face, at least one of bothmain faces comprising a filter, which provides the main face comprisingsaid filter with the following properties: an average blue reflectancefactor (R_(m,B)) within a wavelength range of from 420 nm to 450 nm,which is higher than or equal to 5%, for an angle of incidence rangingfrom 0° to 15°, a spectral reflectivity curve for an angle of incidenceranging from 0° to 15°, this reflectivity curve having: a maximumreflectivity at a wavelength of less than 435 nm, and a full width athalf maximum (FWHM) higher than or equal to 70 nm, preferably higherthan or equal to 75 nm, and for an angle of incidence θ ranging from 0°to 15° and for an angle of incidence θ′ ranging from 30° to 45°, aparameter Δ(θ,θ′) defined by the relation Δ(θ,θ′)=1−[R_(θ′)(435nm)/R_(θ)(435 nm)], in such a way that this parameter Δ(θ,θ′) is higherthan or equal to 0.5, where R_(θ)(435 nm) represents the reflectivityvalue of the main face comprising said filter at a 435 nm-wavelength forthe angle of incidence θ, and R_(θ′)(435 nm) represents the reflectivityvalue of the main face comprising said filter at a 435 nm-wavelength forthe angle of incidence θ′ and or an angle of incidence ranging from 0°to 15°, a parameter Δ spectral defined by the relationΔspectral=1−[R0°−15°(480 nm)/R0°−15°(435 nm)], in such a way that thisparameter Δspectral is higher than or equal to 0.8, where R0°−15° (480nm) represents the reflectivity value of the front main face at a 480nm-wavelength for the relevant incidence, and R0°−15° (435 nm)represents the reflectivity value of the front main face at a 435nm-wavelength for the relevant incidence. These types of ophthalmiclenses make it possible to minimize transmission of phototoxic bluelight to a user's retina, by providing average reflectivity within awavelength range of from 420 nm to 450 nanometers.

For devices that are configured for insertion into the oral cavity, acheek retractor may be included. A cheek retractor is a medicalinstrument used to pull the cheeks away from the mouth and hold them inplace to leave the mouth exposed during a procedure. More specifically,a cheek retractor holds mucoperiosteal flaps, cheeks, lips and tongueaway from the treatment area, thus facilitating having light treat theentire mouth/oral cavity. As disclosed herein, cheek retractors may beincorporated as part of the light guide positioner and/or the mouthguardfor the above-described illumination devices.

Examples of cheek retractors are shown in FIGS. 56A and 56B. FIG. 56A isa perspective view of an exemplary cheek retractor 5600. The cheekretractor 5600 may comprise a clear material, such as plastic or thelike, that is designed to provide a physician or dentist with an openingwide enough to perform procedures in the mouth or other portions of theoral cavity, or in the throat. While these can be used, and while eyeprotection can be used to protect the user's eyes from damagingwavelengths passing through the clear plastic, it may be preferred touse a cheek retractor that is either opaque to all wavelengths, or has acoating to filter out harmful wavelengths. This is particularly truesince a physician or dentist need not use the retractor to access themouth, and all that is needed is to provide access to a source of light,and it is advantageous to minimize or prevent exposing a user's eyes tolight at these wavelengths.

FIG. 56B is a perspective view of a cheek retractor 5610 that includes amaterial, such as a filter, that is configured block certain wavelengthsof light during phototherapy. For example, if the light involvesdelivering blue light, or light with a peak wavelength in a range from400 nm to 450 nm, for impinging light on or near the oropharynx, thecheek retractor 5610 may include a material that filters such blue lightor light within the peak wavelength range from 400 nm to 450 nm. Inother embodiments, the cheek retractor 5610 may include a material thatfilters and/or blocks any of the above-described peak wavelength ranges,depending on the application. In still further embodiments, the cheekretractor 5610 may include a material that is substantially opaque oreven black that is configured to block most light from passing through.In certain embodiments, the material (e.g., for filtering and/or lightblocking) may form the entire cheek retractor 5610 and/or the materialmay be embedded in a host binder material, such as plastic. In stillfurther embodiments, the filtering and/or light blocking material may beprovided as a coating on surfaces of the cheek retractor 5610.

In certain embodiments, the cheek retractor 5610 may also form a hole5620 in the center that is adapted to receive a source of light (notshown). In this regard, one or more light sources may be adapted to fitor otherwise be positioned at or within the hole 5620 for delivery oflight. One or both of the light source and the cheek retractor 5610 canbe fitted with a gasket, so that a pressure-fit of the light into thehole 5620 can be affected. Alternatively, the cheek retractor 5610 maybe threaded to allow the light source to be screwed in place. In eitherof these embodiments, the user can use the light without having to holdit in place and the cheek retractor 5610 may block light emissions fromexiting the user's oral cavity. In another aspect, the cheek retractor5610 may form a narrower shape than a traditional cheek retractor, as itis intended to allow light to enter the oral cavity, but need not serveto provide a sufficient opening for a dentist or physician to performsurgical treatments within the oral cavity. In one embodiment, the cheekretractor 5610 may be adapted to receive the light source, so that theuser can maintain the light source in place by inserting the cheekretractor 5610 in the mouth. For example, the cheek retractor 5610 canbe adapted to receive the light source by including an opening (e.g.,the hole 5620) that receives the light source, which can be adapted tofit in the opening. In one aspect, the cheek retractor 5610 can includescrew threads, and the light source is adapted to screw into thesethreads. In this regard, the cheek retractor 5610 may comprise anopaque, black, and/or filtering material provided within the cheekretractor 5610 or as a coating that minimizes transmission of light inundesired directions. This may sever to protect a user's eyes when alight source is inserted into the mouth, thereby reducing the amount oflight which passes through the cheek retractor 5610 and out of the oralcavity. In another aspect, the cheek retractor 5610 is otherwise a solidpiece of plastic, but includes an opening sized to receive a lightsource, so as to allow the user to keep the mouth open to receive light,while not having to hold the light source.

In other embodiments, a set of light sources adapted to transmit lightto the ears is disclosed. In some aspects of these embodiments, tofacilitate exposure of the light to the ears, the light source can beshaped like an in-ear headphone, or a standard headphone, but insteadof, or in addition to emitting sound, the device emits light atantimicrobial wavelengths. In one aspect of this embodiment, the lightsource is provided in a form similar to over-the-ear headphones, which,in addition to, or in lieu of transmitting sound, includes a lightsource for emitting light at antimicrobial wavelengths to the ears.

In some embodiments, light sources may be adapted to facilitate lighttransmission into the nares (nostrils). By way of example, FIG. 57 is aperspective view of a device 5700 for securing a light source to auser's nostrils. The device may include a clip 5710, so that lightsource(s) in optical communication with the device 5700 may be clippedto the nostrils. Light source(s) may be included within the device 5700or remote from the device and connected to a light receiving end 5720 ofthe device 5700 by way of an optical cable and/or a light guide. Duallight sources, or dual devices 5700, can be used to facilitatesimultaneous administration of light to both nostrils. In theseembodiments, intranasal light therapy can be used to eliminate microbesin the nasal passages.

The principles of the present disclosure may be well suited forproviding a phototherapy kit for treating, preventing, or reducing thebiological activity of microbes present in the mouth, nose and/or ears.Such kits may include one or more combinations of any of theillumination devices as previously described, including light sourcesthat can be used to deliver light at antimicrobial wavelengths to themouth, nose, and/or ears. Such phototherapy kits may also include otherdevices and accessories, such as protective glasses, goggles, shields,and/or masks which shield the wearer's eyes from the antimicrobialand/or from all wavelengths, the cheek retractors as described above tofacilitate administering the light to the user's mouth, and/or a pillowdesigned to arch the user's neck, so that light transmitted into themouth also travels a straight path to the a target area for infection,such as a user's throat and/or oropharynx.

In certain embodiments, illumination devices and treatments may also beapplied for infections that progress to the lungs and/or otherparticular lung disorders. Following treatment, the course of therapycan be followed in different ways. The treatment or prevention ofmicrobial infections can be followed, for example, by following theseverity of the symptoms, the presence of fever, the use of pulseoximetry, and the like. The prevention of pulmonary inflammatorydisorders can be followed by X-ray, lung function tests, and the like.Challenge tests are lung function tests used to help confirm a diagnosisof asthma, where a patient inhales a small amount of a substance knownto trigger symptoms in people with asthma, such as histamine ormethacholine. After inhaling the substance, lung function is evaluated.Following light delivery to induce one or more biological effects, onecan determine whether diminution of lung function following inhalationof these substances is lessened, relative to before phototherapy wasinitiated, which indicates that the phototherapy is effective for such apatient.

The fear of being diagnosed with coronavirus, including COVID-19,followed by rapid hospitalization and mortality from severe lungdysfunction is real. However, using the illumination devices and methodsdescribed herein, coronaviridae and coronavirus infections may beavoided, even after exposure to COVID-19, so long as an insufficientnumber of viral particles have traveled through the oral cavity to thelungs. The same is true of SARS-CoV-2, which infects mucosal tissue ofthe oropharyngeal cavity and lungs through adhesion of its spike proteinto host cell receptors.

The same is also true of orthomyxoviridae (e.g., influenza) viruses,which cause the flu. Coronaviridae and orthomyxoviridae viruses causesimilar symptoms, and the methods described herein are effective forpreventing these viruses from traveling from the oral cavity to thelungs.

In one embodiment, coronavirus infectivity may be prevented with nitricoxide. In contrast to pharmaceutical approaches, nitric oxide may beproduced by stimulating epithelial cells in the oral cavity, auditorycanal, larynx, pharynx, oropharynx, throat, trachea and/or esophaguswith visible blue light, for example, at peak wavelengths in a rangefrom 400 nm to 450 nm, including 425 nm and 430 nm, among others.Light-initiated release of nitric oxide ramps up defense againstSARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses, as well as influenza viruses such asinfluenza A and influenza B, by stopping entry into human cells andinactivating viral replication. If this can be accomplished after theinitial infection, but before the virus particles enter the lungs insufficient numbers to cause a respiratory infection, the result is apost-infection prevention of a coronavirus or influenza respiratoryinfection.

A number of widely deployable medical device countermeasures can beenvisioned. One specific approach for patients exposed, or believed tobe exposed, to coronavirus would utilize a routine bronchoscopeprocedure upfit with a thin blue light fiberoptic that is passed throughthe standard working channel of the bronchoscope (HopeScope) to themouth, throat, larynx, pharynx, trachea, and esophagus. This strategycan limit infectivity, and halt progression of coronaviruses, such asSARS-CoV-2, or influenza viruses, into lung tissues. Additionally, anyof the previously-described illumination devices may be well-suited fordelivery of light for use against coronaviruses and influenza viruses.

Nitric oxide (NO) is a natural part of innate immune response againstinvading pathogens and is produced in high micromolar concentrations byinducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in epithelial tissue. In vitropre-clinical studies have shown that nitric oxide inhibits thereplication of DNA viruses including herpesviruses simplex, Epstein-Barrvirus and the vaccinia virus. Influenza infectivity is also diminishedin the presence of nitric oxide, with results showing that when virionswere exposed to nitric oxide prior to infection, a complete inhibitionof infectivity was achieved for all three strains tested. Nitricoxide-based inhibition of viral replication and selective antiviralactivity against HPV-18 infected human raft epithelial cultures has alsobeen demonstrated. The broad-spectrum antiviral activity of nitric oxidehas been well documented, though, previously, not in the oral cavity orauditory canal.

One way nitric oxide may be effective is that it stops SARS-CoV entryinto human cells. Nitric oxide and its derivatives cause a reduction inthe palmitoylation of nascently expressed spike (S) protein whichaffects the fusion between the S protein and its host cell receptor,angiotensin converting enzyme 2. FIG. 58 is an illustration of thenitric oxide inactivation of the active spike (S) proteins used bycoronaviruses to facilitate endocytosis into human cells.

Nitric oxide may also inhibit viral replication, including replicationof SARS-CoV. While not wishing to be bound to a particular theory, it isbelieved that one or more of the following mechanisms is implicated inthe way that nitric oxide inhibits viral infections. Following exposureto nitric oxide, a reduction in viral RNA production has been observedin the early steps of viral replication, due to an effect on one or bothof the cysteine proteases encoded in Orf1a of SARS-CoV. When examiningthe known pathogenic mechanisms that are utilized by coronaviruses,nitric oxide may also be able to inhibit other key enzymes that areutilized by the RNA virus for inducing apoptosis and rapid destructionof lung tissue (e.g. caspase). Inhibition of caspase makes coronavirusless contagious. The inhibition of caspase dependent apoptosis used fortransmission of the virions offers a significant advantage to any nitricoxide-based approach for treatment or prevention. Although endogenousinhibitors of caspase activation and activity have been described, nonehas been shown to be more prevalent than NO. All caspase proteasescontain a single cysteine at the enzyme catalytic site that can beefficiently S-nitrosylated in the presence of NO. Evidence forS-nitrosylation of caspase-3 and caspase-1 in vivo has beendemonstrated.

Another mechanism by which nitric oxide is antiviral is throughinhibition of NF-κB, which dampens the immunological response. The NF-κBproteins are a family of transcription factors that regulate expressionof genes to control a broad range of biological processes and have beenshown to play an important role in SARS-CoV infections. Inhibition ofNF-κB with nitric oxide can limit the inflammatory cytokine rush thatleads to death by inflammation in COVID-19 patients. Nitric oxide candirectly inhibit the DNA binding activity of NF-κB family proteins,suggesting that intracellular NO provides another control mechanism formodulating the expression of NF-κB responsive genes.

Pharmacologic approaches to deliver nitric oxide have been attempted.Clinical concentrations of NO gas were safely administered to SARSpatients in China, where they observed that nitric oxide gas (1) reducedthe time to hospital discharge, (2) reduced the need for ventilatorysupport, and (3) improved appearance of infection on lungs via chestradiograph. However, nitric oxide can be produced by stimulatingepithelial cells with precise colors of visible light as described infor example, U.S. Pat. No. 10,569,097, the disclosure of which isincorporated by reference in its entirety. Although other wavelengthsdescribed herein are effective at producing or releasing nitric oxide,blue light, particularly in a range from 400 nm to 450 nm, including 425nm and 430 nm, was found to be an particular wavelength to both triggerrelease of bound NO from endogenous stores and to upregulate cellularenzymatic production of nitric oxide. When nitric oxide is producednaturally, the half-life of the gas is less than 1 second in physiologictissue. Nitric oxide and its metabolites have long lasting concentrationin cells as nitrosothiols and metal nitrosyl centers which can berecycled to bioactive NO following photo stimulated release. Thesustained enzymatic production of nitric oxide is a completelyunexpected result. Measured via upregulation of iNOS and eNOS protein inepithelial cells in culture, a single 10-minute light treatment of bluelight maintained a 10× level of enzyme production for a period of 24hours.

In certain embodiments, the wavelengths of light may not be in the UVrange, and are thus separate and distinct from any disinfectionapproaches with UVC or UVB wavelengths, though such wavelengths arecertainly contemplated in other embodiments described herein.

This groundbreaking use of targeted wavelengths of light is a rapidlydeployable strategy to assist with limiting infectivity and progressionof SARS-CoV-2 into deeper lung tissues. Using the illumination devicesdescribed herein, or other devices for delivering light at frequenciesthat can produce or release nitric oxide, among other biologicaleffects, light can be delivered to and/or through the oral cavity,including the nasal cavity, oropharyngeal area, and the like, tostimulate mucosal epithelial cells to ramp up nitric oxide productionagainst coronavirus. This can help inhibit entry into human cells,inhibiting viral replication, and eliminate, or at least reduce thenumber of viral particles, before a sufficient number of viral particlestravel down the oral cavity to the lungs.

One specific device for administering the light, particularly to thethroat, larynx, pharynx, oropharynx, esophagus and trachea, is abronchoscope adapted to emit blue light. Bronchoscopes are readilyavailable, as there are more than 500,000 bronchoscopies performed inthe US every year and an abundance of these devices are alreadyavailable within medical facilities across the country. Bronchoscopescan be upfit with a thin blue light fiberoptic that can be passedthrough the standard working channel of the bronchoscope used for fluiddelivery/extraction and biopsy.

It would be advantageous to rescue recently infected patients withphototherapeutic light before they reach the “tipping point” where thevirus has invaded the lungs, and eventually decline into severe acuterespiratory syndrome. Since nitric oxide inhibits viral replication andreduces proliferation of the virus in or around the oral cavity,auditory canal, and the like, the efficacy of blue light againstSARS-CoV-2 can be exploited by appropriately dosing light(Fluence=J/cm²) and frequency of administration to safely stimulateintracellular nitric oxide production. Nitric oxide antiviral activityis dose dependent, so the most appropriate dosage is believed to be oneat or near the maximum amount of phototherapeutic light that causes novisible adverse effects on the tissue, or elevation of systemicbiomarkers of clinical toxicity during routine blood chemistry andhematology testing, is observed.

Representative dosing parameters include single and/or multipleexposures of 5 J/cm², 10 J/cm², 20 J/cm², or 30 J/cm², among other dosesdescribed herein, and repeat exposures once weekly, three times weekly,or once daily, or twice daily for a period of one or more days, up totwo or more weeks.

Nitric oxide is a well-known and extensively researched moleculenaturally present in the body. It primarily interacts with hemoglobin toform methemoglobin which denies oxygen transport. The known effects ofmethemoglobinemia and elevated nitrate levels are routinely observed andmonitored in the clinical exploration of inhalable nitric oxide gas.These markers enable continuous patient safety monitoring. Adverseeffects of gaseous nitric oxide are well known and can be mitigated bydecreasing dosing upon observation of rising methemoglobin levels (>5%).Pulse co-oximetry provides a method to noninvasively and continuouslymeasuring methemoglobin in the blood. Blood nitrate levels are also awell-known metabolite of nitric oxide within the body and can be used tomonitor safety and avoid adverse effects. The toxicological consequencesof elevated NOx species and MetHb have been extensively studied.

The following are desirable clinical endpoints from the use of themethods described herein:

Resolution of infection, virus undetectable at 7 days, 14 days, and/or28 days.

Reduction in the proportion of early stage patients who progress to asevere form of the disease defined as: SpO2 <93% without oxygensupplementation sustained for more than 12 hours; or, PaO2/FiO2 ratio<300 mmHg sustained for more than 12 hours; or, necessity of high flownasal cannula oxygen or intubation and mechanical ventilation or ECMOtherapy over 7 days, 14 days, 28 days.

Reduction in the percentage of patients developing worsening symptoms,resulting from passage of viral particles from the oral cavity to thelungs.

Reduction in the percentage of patients developing SARS.

Increase in overall survival at 7 days, 14 days, 28 days, and 90 days.

Based on the discussion above, the treatment and/or prevention methodsinvolve applying light at a sufficient wavelength to one or more regionsof the oral cavity or auditory canal, or the throat, larynx, pharynx,oropharynx, esophagus and/or trachea of a patient, at a sufficientpower, and for a sufficient period of time, to kill coronavirus, andthus prevent a pulmonary coronavirus infection. The same approach can beused to prevent respiratory infection by other viruses, such asinfluenza viruses, that are present in the oral cavity, but have not yettraveled to the lungs in sufficient numbers to result in infection.

In one embodiment, intense blue light, typically between 400 and 500 nm,and preferably at around 400-430 nm, such as 405 nm or 415 nm, can beused. A combination of 405 nm blue light and 880 nm infrared light canalso be used. In aspect of this embodiment, light at wavelengths of450-495 nm is used. Although blue light is primarily discussed above,UVA, UVB, or UVC light can also be effective at treating coronaviridaeinfection, with UVC light being preferred. Exposure to light at thesewavelengths can be damaging to tissue if carried out for extendedperiods of time. Ideally, tissue is not exposed to these wavelengths forperiods of time that cause significant damage. That said, sinceUVA/UVB/UVC light and other wavelengths operate by different mechanisms,specific wavelengths of visible light can also be used, alone or incombination with UVA/UVB/UVC light.

The light can be administered anywhere along the oral cavity, auditorycanal, or throat, larynx, pharynx, oropharynx, trachea, or esophagus,depending on the status of the patient's infection. If the virus is notpresent in large quantities in the lung, and is largely limited to thepatient's mouth, nose, and throat, phototherapy limited to those regionscan prevent a respiratory infection. This approach can also be used in aprophylactic manner for patients at risk for developing a coronaviridaeinfection, by virtue of having been, or suspected of having been, incontact with individuals with a coronaviridae infection.

In addition to administering light at wavelengths that areantimicrobial, light can also, or alternatively, be administered atwavelengths that are anti-inflammatory. Such wavelengths can inhibitinflammation of the nasal passages or in the mouth, which can furtherhelp prevent the infection from spreading to the lung. Anti-inflammatorywavelengths, particularly in the nasal passages, can also help preventsecondary infections, such as sinus infections, which can lead tobronchitis or pneumonia, which are caused by bacteria and whichfrequently follow viral infections. Minimization of the risk ofsecondary infection can, in some cases, be even more important thantreatment of the underlying viral infection.

It can be important to follow the course of treatment, particularlywhere a patient has an active infection that has not yet travelled tothe lungs in a sufficient manner to result in pulmonary infection. Thepatient could experience severe adverse consequences if the preventionis not successful, so it can be important to monitor the progression ofthe disease.

Methods of following the progress of the treatment include takingperiodic readings with a pulse oximeter and taking periodic chestX-Rays/ultrasounds/CT scans. One can also check for residual microbialinfection, for example, using ELISA tests, or other tests which look forantibodies specific to certain microbial infections, as well asanalyzing blood or sputum samples for residual infection. A patient'sbody temperature can be followed as well, particularly for following thetreatment of microbial infections in the short-term.

The delivery of safe, visible wavelengths of light can be an effective,pathogen-agnostic, antiviral therapeutic countermeasure that wouldexpand the current portfolio of intervention strategies for SARS-CoV-2and other respiratory viral infections beyond the conventionalapproaches of vaccine, antibody, and drug therapeutics. Employing LEDarrays, specific wavelengths of visible light may be harnessed foruniform delivery across various targeted biological surfaces. In certainaspects of the present disclosure, it is demonstrated that primary 3Dhuman tracheal/bronchial-derived epithelial tissues exhibiteddifferential tolerance to light in a wavelength and dose-dependentmanner. Primary 3D human tracheal/bronchial tissues tolerated high dosesof 425 nm peak wavelength blue light. These studies were extended toVero E6 cells to provide understanding of how light may influenceviability of a mammalian cell line conventionally used for assayingSARS-CoV-2. Exposure of single-cell monolayers of Vero E6 cells tosimilar doses of 425 nm blue light resulted in viabilities that weredependent on dose and cell density. Doses of 425 nm blue light that arewell-tolerated by Vero E6 cells, also inhibited SARS-CoV-2 replicationby greater than 99% at 24 hours post-infection after a singlefive-minute light exposure. Red light at 625 nm had no effect onSARS-CoV replication, or cell viability, indicating that inhibition ofSARS-CoV-2 replication is specific to the antiviral environment elicitedby blue light. Moreover, 425 nm visible light inactivated up to 99.99%of cell-free SARS-CoV-2 in a dose-dependent manner. Importantly, dosesof 425 nm light that dramatically interfere with SARS-CoV-2 infectionand replication are also well-tolerated by primary human 3Dtracheal/bronchial tissue. In this regard, safe, deliverable doses ofvisible light may be considered part of a strategic portfolio fordevelopment of SARS-CoV-2 therapeutic countermeasures to preventcoronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).

Among other approaches for treating SARS-CoV-2 infection, there arenucleoside analogs such as Remdesivir, and convalescent plasma, bothseparately demonstrated to shorten time to recovery for Covid-19patients; and the glucocorticoid, dexamethasone, was demonstrated tolower the mortality rate in individuals receiving oxygen alone ormechanical ventilation support. To curb the long timelines associatedwith clinical safety and efficacy trials for traditional drugtherapeutics, researchers are briskly working to evaluate FDA-approveddrug therapeutics against SARS-CoV-2. Although encouraging, many of thecurrent strategies are SARS-CoV-2 specific and target the virus eitheroutside (cell-free virus), or inside the cell (cell-associated,replicating virus). Expanding the therapeutic armory beyond conventionalstrategies may expedite the availability of therapeutic countermeasureswith non-specific antiviral properties that can inactivate cell-free andcell-associated virus.

Light therapy has the potential to inactivate both cell-free andcell-associated viruses, including coronaviridae and orthomyxoviridae.Mitigating SARS-CoV-2 infection with light therapy requires knowledge ofwhich wavelengths of light most effectively interfere with viralinfection and replication, while minimizing damage to host tissues andcells. A large body of literature demonstrates that ultraviolet light,predominantly UVC at the 254 nm wavelength, is highly effective atinactivating cell-free coronaviruses on surfaces, aerosolized, or inliquid. UVC inactivates coronaviruses, as well as many other RNA and DNAviruses, through absorption of UVC photons by pyrimidines in the RNAbackbone, leading to the formation of pyrimidine dimers that precludereplication of the coronavirus genome. UVC is also highly damaging toreplicating mammalian cells, causing perturbations in genomic DNA thatcan increase the risk of mutagenic events. As such, viral inactivationwith UV light is primarily limited to cell-free environmentalapplications. In the present disclosure, inactivating coronaviridae withsafe, visible light (e.g., above 400 nm) is presented as a new approachto interfering with SARS-CoV-2 infection and replication.

Photobiomodulation (PBM), or light therapy, is an approach to mitigateoutcomes of viral infection in mammals, such as humans. PBM may alsorefer to phototherapy as disclosed herein. PBM is the safe, low-power,illumination of cells and tissues using light-emitting diodes (LED's) orlow-level laser therapy (LLLT) within the visible/near-infrared spectrum(400 nm-1050 nm). Importantly, the therapeutic effect is driven bylight's interaction with photoacceptors within the biological system,and is not to be confused with photodynamic therapy (PDT), which employsthe exogenous addition of photosensitizers or chemicals to inducereactive oxygen species (though the addition of photosensitizers orother chemicals to induce reactive oxygen species is another embodimentwithin the scope of the methods described herein).

The safe and effective use of blue light PBM in the 450-490 nm range wasadopted for mainstream clinical use in the late 1960's to treat jaundicein neonates caused by hyperbilirubinemia, and continues to be employedin hospitals today as a primary treatment for hyperbilirubinemia.According to aspects of the present disclosure, changing the wavelengthsof visible light based on targeted applications can broaden the scope oftherapeutic applications. Studies also indicate that PBM with visiblelight may function to inactivate replication of RNA and DNA viruses invitro. Importantly, several studies demonstrate that PBM therapy can besafely applied to the oral and nasal cavities to treat a spectrum ofillnesses. As disclosed herein, PBM therapy in the oral and nasalcavities, as well as in the lungs or endothelial tissues, may be aneffective means of mitigating replication of SARS-CoV-2 in the upperrespiratory tract, so long as it can be done at doses which do notsignificantly affect the viability of the tissues being treated. Adeeper exploration of the precise selection of optical irradiance (e.g.,in mW/cm²) combined with one or more monochromatic wavelengths ofvisible light can broaden the scope of therapeutic applications inrespiratory medicine.

In this regard, embodiments of the present disclosure are provided thatdescribe the first use of safe, visible wavelengths of blue light at lowpowers (<100 mW/cm²) to inactivate both cell-free and cell-associatedSARS-CoV-2 in in vitro cell-based assays. Importantly, doses of bluelight that effectively inactivate SARS-CoV-2 are well-tolerated byprimary human tracheal/bronchial respiratory tissues.

In order to evaluate the safety of visible light on cells and tissues invitro and the efficacy of visible light in SARS-CoV-2 infectious assays,careful designs of LED arrays having narrow band emission spectra withpeak wavelengths at 385 nm, 405 nm, 425 nm, and 625 nm wavelengths areprovided and summarized in FIGS. 59A and 59B. In this manner, LED arraysmay be properly calibrated to provide repeatable and uniform doses oflight so that illumination may occur reliably across many assays and inmultiple laboratories. Measuring the full emission spectrum around thepeak emission wavelength is necessary to confirm proper function foreach LED array and the photon density per nanometer. In this regard,such measurements are recommended as an important characterization stepto help harmonize the variability of results published in literature.FIG. 59A is a chart 5900 illustrating measured spectral flux relative towavelength for different exemplary LED arrays. Each LED array wasindependently characterized by measuring the spectral flux, which may bemeasured in W/nm, relative to the wavelength (nm). In FIG. 59A, an LEDarray with a peak wavelength of 385 nm is clearly within the upperbounds of the UVA spectrum (315-400 nm), whereas only a small amount(e.g., about 10%) of an LED array with a peak wavelength of 405 nm lightextends into the UVA spectrum, and an LED array with a peak wavelengthof 425 nm light is 99% within the visible light spectrum (400-700 nm).FIG. 59B illustrates a perspective view of a testing set-up 5910 forproviding light from one or more LED arrays 5920 to a biological testarticle 5930. In addition to the design of the LED arrays 5920,including the emission spectrums, other important experimentalconditions including a distance D of the LED arrays 5920 from thebiological test article 5930 (e.g., 90 mm) an illumination power (e.g.,25 mW/cm² or 50 mW/cm² depending on the wavelength), and indicated doses(J/cm²) were carefully calibrated to reduce any effects of temperatureon the biological test articles 5930. Moreover, each LED array isvalidated to ensure that light is evenly distributed across multi-welltissue culture plates, such that the biological test articles in eachreplicate well receive uniform doses of light.

Understanding how target tissues in the upper airway tolerate blue lightis central to the development of a light-derived antiviral approach forSARS-CoV-2. Initial evaluation of LED arrays was conducted on 3D tissuemodels developed from cells isolated from bronchial/tracheal region of asingle donor. The 3D EpiAirway tissue models are 3-4 cell layers thickcomprising a mucociliary epithelium layer with a ciliated apicalsurface. To assess the wavelength and doses of light most tolerated bythese tissues, replicate tissue samples were exposed to 385 nm, 405 nm,or 425 nm light at various doses. Viability was assayed at 3 hourspost-exposure using the indicated doses and wavelengths of light, anddata is represented as +/−standard deviation. The percent viability oftissue was assessed using a well-established MTT cytotoxicity assayoptimized for the 3D EpiAirway tissue models. FIG. 60A is a chart 6000illustrating a percent viability for a peak wavelength of 385 nm fordoses in a range from 0 to 120 J/cm². FIG. 60B is a chart 6010illustrating a percent viability for a peak wavelength of 405 nm for thesame doses of FIG. 60A. FIG. 60C is a chart 6020 illustrating a percentviability for a peak wavelength of 425 nm for the same doses of FIG.60A. As illustrated in FIGS. 60A-60C, the percent viability of tissuewas clearly impacted in a wavelength-dependent and a dose-dependentmanner. Illumination with 385 nm light exhibited the most dramatic lossin viability with nearly a 50% decrease at a dose of 45 J/cm² (FIG.60A). Light at 385 nm actually showed increased cell viability at dosesof 15 J/cm². Although less dramatic, 405 nm exhibited a dose-dependentdecrease in viability with greater than 25% loss at 60 J/cm² and about a50% loss at 120 J/cm² (FIG. 60B). Notably, the 425 nm light was welltolerated at doses of light out to 120 J/cm² (FIG. 60C). Using 75%viability as a threshold level of acceptable cytotoxicity, 385 nm lightmay be safely administered to these tissues at power levels of up to 30J/cm², and 405 nm light may be safely administered to these tissues atpower levels of up to 45 J/cm², and 425 nm light may be safelyadministered to these tissues at power levels up to 120 J/cm² with onlynegligible loss of viability between 90 and 120 J/cm², and 425 nm dosesup to around 75 J/cm² actually showed increased cell viability.

In this regard, 425 nm blue light is shown to have little or no impacton human upper airway-derived 3D tissue models. As such, longerwavelengths of visible light such as 425 nm and greater, that do notbleed into the UVA spectrum, may have reduced impact on tissue viabilityof primary human tissue derived from the upper respiratory tract. Inparticular, less than 20% tissue loss may be realized at higher doseswith such longer wavelengths. Based on these studies visible blue lightat 425 nm was chosen for subsequent evaluation in the widely availableVero E6 cell line, conventionally used to evaluate SARS-CoV-2 infectionand replication.

Vero E6 cells are commonly used for preparing stocks, performing growthcurves, and evaluating therapeutic countermeasures for SARS-CoV-2.Depending on the type of assay being performed it could be necessary tovary the seeding cell density and multi-well tissue culture plateformat. Often, cell viability is evaluated to determine if the antiviralproperties of a therapeutic can be parsed from potentialtherapeutic-induced cytotoxic effects. Experiments were performed todetermine if cell density and multi-well plate format can influence cellviability upon exposure to 425 nm blue light. To effectively evaluatethe cell viability, the cytotoxicity assay was optimized for use withVero E6 cell densities up to 1×10⁶ cells. Antiviral assays performed on96 well plates are commonly evaluated at cell seeding densities of 1×10⁴and 2×10⁴ cells.

FIG. 61A is a chart 6100 illustrating percent viability for Vero E6cells for antiviral assays performed on 96 well plates at cell seedingdensities of 1×10⁴, 2×10⁴, and 4×10⁴ cells. Under these conditions, itis illustrated that 425 nm blue light may result in decreased cellviability (e.g., 25-50%) at doses of 30 J/cm² and 60 J/cm² by 24 hourspost-illumination, whereas a seeding density of 4×10⁴ cells tolerateshigh doses of light exposure. FIG. 61B is a chart 6110 illustratingpercent viability for Vero E6 cells for antiviral assays performed on 48well plates at cell seeding densities of 2×10⁴, 4×10⁴, and 8×10⁴ cells.Unexpectedly, 4×10⁴ cells seeded on a 48 well plate were not welltolerated, showing about a 50% reduction in cell viability at a dose of60 J/cm² compared to 8×10⁴ cells. These results demonstrated that thecell seeding density relative to the surface area of the culture wellinfluences the susceptibility to 425 nm light. FIG. 61C is a chart 6120illustrating percent viability for Vero E6 cells for antiviral assaysperformed on 24 well plates at cell seeding densities of 5×10⁴, 1×10⁵,and 2×10⁵ cells. As illustrated, the 24 well plate format of FIG. 61Cwith cell seeding densities of 1×10⁵ and 2×10⁵ demonstrated acceptableviability at all doses tested. In contrast, illumination of Vero E6cells to high doses of 625 nm light may have no impact on cellviability; thereby, indicating that cell density-dependentsusceptibility of Vero E6 cells to 425 nm light appears to becharacteristic of shorter wavelengths of light. Higher Vero E6 seedingdensities resulted in 100% cell confluence prior to illumination,exhibiting cell-to-cell contact that mimics the 3D EpiAirway models.Thus, high confluence Vero E6 cell monolayers readily tolerate 425 nmblue light as well as 3D EpiAirway tissue models.

The use of visible light to inactivate cell-free and cell-associatedcoronaviridae is unprecedented. To assess the capability of 425 nm bluelight to inactivate SARS-CoV-2, Vero E6 cells were infected with amultiplicity of infection (MOI) of 0.001 SARS-CoV-2 isolate USA-WA1/2020for 1 hour. At 1-hour post-infection (h.p.i.) the cell-associated viruswas treated with a single illumination of 425 nm blue light at dosesranging from 7.5 to 60 J/cm². FIG. 62A is a chart 6200 illustratingtissue culture infectious dose (TCID₅₀) per milliliter (ml) for the 425nm light at the doses ranging from 7.5 to 60 J/cm² for the Vero E6 cellsinfected with a MOI of 0.001 SARS-CoV-2 isolate USA-WA1/2020 for 1 hour.At 24-hours post-infection (h.p.i), there was a clear dose-dependentdecrease in SARS-CoV-2 TCID₅₀/ml. Low doses of 425 nm light weresufficient to reduce SARS-CoV-2 by at least 2 logs for 7.5 J/cm², atleast 3 logs for 15 J/cm², and at least a 5 log reduction for 30 J/cm².A similar trend was observed at 48 h.p.i., although continued viralreplication may account for the similarity in TCID₅₀/ml observed at lowdoses between 7.5 J/cm² and 15 J/cm². This data demonstrates that 425 nmblue light interferes with SARS-CoV-2 replication in a dose-dependentmanner. Specific TCID₅₀/ml values are presented to demonstrate datatrends and data values relative to on another, the actual values mayvary from lab to lab and are not meant to be limiting. FIG. 62B is achart 6210 illustrating percent reduction in SARS-CoV-2 replicationversus percent cell cytotoxicity for the doses of light as illustratedin FIG. 62A. At doses of light that have little impact on the viabilityof Vero E6 cells (e.g., 7.5, 15, and 30 J/cm²), up to a 99.99% reductionin SARS-CoV-2 replication was observed. Notably, cell viability was abit lower at 45 J/cm² and 60 J/cm² than the data shown in FIGS. 60A-60C;however, slight variations in the cytotoxicity assay are anticipatedsince the SARS-CoV-2 experiments were executed in independentlaboratories with differences in cell seeding, cell passage, and cellmedia.

FIGS. 63A and 63B represent experimental data similar to FIGS. 62A and62B, but with the MOI increased to 0.01. FIG. 63A is a chart 6300illustrating TCID₅₀/ml for 425 nm light at doses ranging from 7.5 to 60J/cm² for Vero E6 cells infected with a MOI of 0.01 SARS-CoV-2 isolateUSA-WA1/2020 for 1 hour. Specific TCID₅₀/ml values are presented todemonstrate data trends and data values relative to on another, theactual values may vary from lab to lab and are not meant to be limiting.FIG. 63B is a chart 6310 illustrating percent reduction in SARS-CoV-2replication versus percent cell cytotoxicity for the doses of light asillustrated in FIG. 63A. As illustrated, increasing the MOI to 0.01yielded a similar dose-dependent reduction in SARS-CoV-2 replication aspreviously illustrated for the MOI of 0.001 of FIGS. 62A and 62B.Despite increasing the amount of input virus 10-fold (e.g., from MOI0.001 to MOI 0.01), a short, 2.5 minute dose of 7.5 J/cm² with 425 nmblue light still demonstrated reduction in SARS-CoV-2 replication by atleast 2-logs at 24 h.p.i.

FIG. 63C is a table 6320 showing an evaluation of SARS-CoV-2 RNA withreverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR) for samplescollected for the TCID₅₀ assays of FIGS. 63A-63B. The cycle number fordetection is the basic test result and may be referred to as aquantification cycle (Cq) where low Cq values represent higher initialamount of the target. As shown, there is a dose-dependent reduction inSARS-CoV-2 genomic RNA; further substantiating the impact of 425 nmlight on SARS-CoV-2. The fold reduction between doses of 425 nm lightwith rRT-PCR test detection is lower than those observed for replicationcompetent virus (TCID₅₀ detection), indicating that SARS-CoV-2 viral RNAis readily detectable despite decreases in infectious virions. Thesedata imply that 425 nm blue light may have less of an impact on viralRNA replication and RNA packaging relative to the inactivation of virusparticles.

FIGS. 64A and 64B represent experimental data similar to FIGS. 63A and63B that was obtained by a second, independent laboratory evaluationusing Vero 76 cells infected with a MOI of 0.01 at 48 h.p.i. FIG. 64A isa chart 6400 illustrating TCID₅₀/ml for 425 nm light at doses rangingfrom 7.5 to 60 J/cm² for Vero 76 cells infected with a MOI of 0.01SARS-CoV-2. Specific TCID₅₀/ml values are presented to demonstrate datatrends and data values relative to on another, the actual values mayvary from lab to lab and are not meant to be limiting. FIG. 64B is achart 6440 illustrating percent reduction in SARS-CoV-2 replicationversus percent cell cytotoxicity for the doses of light as illustratedin FIG. 64A. Consistent with FIGS. 63A and 63B, a similar trend in thedose-dependent effects of 425 nm blue light on SARS-CoV-2 replication isobserved in FIGS. 64A and 64B. Importantly, the dose-dependent trendshowed similar log reductions despite differences in cell type (Vero76), SARS-CoV-2 virus stock preparation, cell culture media, andviability assay.

To understand if the antiviral activity of light against SARS-CoV-2 isspecific to 425 nm blue light, Vero E6 cells infected with a MOI of 0.01were exposed to high doses red light. In this regard, FIG. 65 is a chart6500 illustrating TCID₅₀/ml versus various doses of 625 nm red light forVero E6 cells infected with a MOI of 0.01. Specific TCID₅₀/ml values arepresented to demonstrate data trends and data values relative to onanother, the actual values may vary from lab to lab and are not meant tobe limiting. Extensive illumination times with doses ranging from 15J/cm² to 240 J/cm² showed no reduction in TCID₅₀/ml at 24 h.p.i.;demonstrating that 425 nm blue light elicits a unique antiviralenvironment that results in SARS-CoV-2 inactivation. In this regard,light at 425 nm can be administered at effective, virucidal doses, whichare relatively safe (e.g., less than 25% cytotoxicity) in VeroE6 celllines, and at even higher doses in endothelial cells, like those foundin the respiratory tract and all blood vessels. Red light may havelittle to no effect on SARS-CoV-2 replication, and/or enhances viralload, as measured by TCID₅₀ over 24/48 hours. However, red light maydecrease inflammation resulting from exposure to blue light, which maypositively impact cell viability, thereby lowering cytotoxicity. Adecrease in inflammation can be beneficial when treating viralinfections, particularly when a virus can elicit a cytokine storm and/orinflammation can result in secondary bacterial infections. Accordingly,the combination of blue light, such as light at around 425 nm, and redlight at one or more anti-inflammatory wavelengths, can provide adesirable combination of biological effects.

Efficacy of 425 nm blue light against cell-associated SARS-CoV-2 can bea combination of blue light eliciting an antiviral environment in thecells and inactivating cell-free virions. To distinguish between these,FIGS. 66A and 66B represent cell-free SARS-CoV-2 inactivation that wasevaluated by two independent laboratories. Two different virussuspensions containing the equivalent of ˜10⁵ and ˜10⁶ TCID₅₀/ml wereilluminated with the indicated doses of 425 nm blue light. Followingillumination, virus was assayed by TCID₅₀ on Vero E6 cells in a firstlaboratory as illustrated in a chart 6600 of FIG. 66A and on Vero 76cells in a second laboratory as illustrated in a chart 6610 of FIG. 66B.As illustrated in FIG. 66A, in the first laboratory, low doses of 425 nmlight were sufficient to inactivate 10⁶ TCID₅₀/ml SARS-CoV-2 with atleast 1 log reduction at 7.5 J/cm² (or greater than 90%), with at least2 log reduction at 15 J/cm² (or greater than 99%), with at least 3 logreduction at 30 J/cm² (or greater than 99.9%), and at least 4 logreduction at 60 J/cm² (or greater than 99.99%). A similar trend in thedata was observed in the second laboratory for the Vero 76 cells asillustrated in FIG. 66B. Despite a less dramatic reduction in SARS-CoV-2inactivation, at least a 2 log reduction was still observed at 60 J/cm²(or at least 99%). Technical differences between laboratories includingSARS-CoV-2 virus stock preparation, cell culture media, and cell typesused for assaying virus may be factors that influenced the magnitude ofsusceptibility. Overall, the results from two independent laboratoriesdemonstrated that low doses of 425 nm blue light (e.g., ≤15 J/cm²)effectively inhibits the infection and replication of cell-free andcell-associated SARS-CoV-2, with minimal impact on cell viability.Specific TCID₅₀/ml values are presented to demonstrate data trends anddata values relative to on another, the actual values may vary from labto lab and are not meant to be limiting.

For completeness of collected data, FIGS. 67A and 67B are provided toshow that Vero E6 cells do not exhibit decreased percent viability whenexposed to doses of green light or doses of red light. In both FIGS. 67Aand 67B, a number of cells was provided at 2×10⁵ cells, 1×10⁵ cells, and5×10⁴ cells. FIG. 67A is a chart 6700 indicating that Vero E6 cells donot show decreased viability under 530 nm light at doses ranging from0-180 J/cm². FIG. 67B is a chart 6710 indicating that Vero E6 cells donot show decreased viability under 625 nm light at doses ranging from0-240 J/cm².

The expedited need for therapeutic countermeasures against SARS-CoV-2and other respiratory viral pathogens beckons the rapid development ofnovel approaches that may complement existing public health measures. Asdisclosed herein, LED arrays were carefully designed to demonstrate forthe first time that safe, visible blue 425 nm light, can inhibit bothcell-free and cell-associated SARS-CoV-2 infection and replication in adose-dependent manner. Results from two independent laboratoriesdemonstrate that low doses of 425 nm blue light (e.g., ≤15 J/cm²)effectively inhibit infection and replication of SARS-CoV-2(e.g., >99%), with minimal impact on Vero E6 cell viability.Importantly, doses of 425 nm light ≤60 J/cm² were well tolerated in the3D EpiAirway tissue models established from human tracheal/bronchialtissues.

The EpiAirway model is a commercially available in vitro organotypicmodel of human mucociliary airway epithelium cultured at the air/liquidinterface to provide a differentiated in vivo-like epithelial structurewith barrier properties and metabolic functions. There is strong globalmomentum to replace animal model testing with relevant in vitrohuman-derived test systems to reduce the number of animals used inpreclinical testing. Current testing guidelines (TG403, TG433, andTG436), established by the Organization for Economic Co-operation andDevelopment (OECD), for inhalation toxicity outline the use of animalsto determine LC₅₀ (e.g., a concentration required to cause death of 50%of the test animals). The EpiAirway in vitro tissue model can be used todetermine the IC₂₅ value (concentration required to reduce tissueviability by 25% of vehicle control-treated tissues) of a test article.Following 3-hours of exposure, the model have been shown to predictrespiratory tissue viability using chemicals with the GloballyHarmonized System (GHS) Acute Inhalation Toxicity Category 1 and 2, andEnvironmental Protection Agency (EPA) Acute Inhalation Toxicity CategoryI-II classifications. Extended exposure times (e.g., 24 and 72 hours)with toxic chemicals also reflect in vivo responses, have demonstratedthe predictive value of the EpiAirway models for respiratory toxins inhumans. Furthermore, such a uniform in vitro model is ideally suited toevaluate the safety doses of light applied to a fixed surface area(e.g., in J/cm²), rather than attempting to scale the optical deliveryof light to the appropriate small rodent anatomy.

As previously shown in FIGS. 60A-60C, the EpiAirway model was exposed tovarious dose ranges at light with wavelengths of 385 nm, 405 nm, and 425nm. Exposure to UVA light at 385 nm exhibited greater than 25% loss inviability at greater than 45 J/cm², identifying a dose that breaches theIC₂₅ threshold established for acute cytotoxicity in the EpiAirwaymodel. In contrast, higher doses of the 425 nm blue light doses reachedthe IC₂₅ threshold for validated acute airway irritation. Greater than100% tissue viability was observed following illumination with antiviral(e.g., >99.99% reduction in SARS-CoV-2) 425 nm blue light doses of 60J/cm². The distinct viability profiles observed at 385 nm, 405 nm, and425 nm demonstrate that the 3D EpiAirway tissue models are amenable foridentifying acute respiratory effects associated with light therapy in adose- and wavelength-dependent manner. Minimal loss in viability out to120 J/cm² at 425 nm indicates that the 3D human respiratory tissuemodels are highly tolerant to this wavelength. In FIGS. 61A to 61C, 2DVero E6 cell cultures exhibited a cell density-dependent viabilityresponse to 425 nm doses at greater than or equal to 15 J/cm², whereinlow seeding densities per surface area were more susceptible to lightinduced cytotoxic effects. The enhanced tolerance of the 3D EpiAirwaytissue models to 425 nm blue light compared to 2D Vero E6 cell culturesis not surprising, given that cells in 3D culture are often moreresistant to drug treatment, drug metabolism is more effective, andthere is increased resistance to drug-induced apoptosis. Thecharacteristics of 3D tissue models more closely reflect cellularattributes observed in the context of tissues in vivo. Developingoptimal conditions for SARS-CoV-2 infection and replication in 3Drespiratory tissue models will help elucidate mechanisms that govern theability of 425 nm blue light to inactivate SARS-CoV-2.

The mechanisms underlying 425 nm blue light to inactivate SARS-CoV-2 arestill being developed; however, a brief introduction to putativemolecular contributors is relevant. The molecular mechanisms governingthe impact of blue light on non-pigmented cells are only beginning to berevealed. The effects of blue light should follow the first law ofphotochemistry, which states that light must be absorbed to have aneffect. A handful of photoacceptors for blue light have been identifiedin non-pigmented cells, including cytochrome c oxidase, flavins,porphyrins, opsins, and nitrosated proteins. Light absorption byphotoreceptors can lead to release of reactive oxygen species (ROS)and/or nitric oxide (NO) that may function to inactivate SARS-CoV-2 in acell-free or cell-associated environment. Reactive oxygen species and/orbioactive NO may elicit activation of transcription factors involved inimmune signaling, such as nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer ofactivated B cells (NF-κB) and mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK)signaling. NFκB and MAPK pathways can lead to transcriptional activationof innate and inflammatory immune response molecules that may interferewith SARS-CoV-2 replication. Nitric oxide may also mediate inactivationof cell-associated SARS-CoV-2 through S-nitrosylation of cysteineresidues in the active site of viral encoded enzymatic proteins.Reactive oxygen species and/or NO may also function to inactivatecell-free virions. Photosensitizers present in cell media may facilitategeneration of ROS and/or NO that directly impact virion proteins and/orviral RNA to prevent infection and replication. It has also beendemonstrated that inactivation of cell-free feline calicivirus (FCV) by405 nm light was dependent on naturally occurring photosensitizers inmedia. Importantly, FCV was inactivated by 4 logs in artificial salivaand blood plasma, indicating that light-induced inactivation ofcell-free virus is obtainable under biologically-relevant conditions.Evidence demonstrating that SARS-CoV can be inactivated by exogenousaddition of NO donor molecules, or possibly by single oxygensubstantiate the potential for SARS-CoV-2 inactivation by nitric oxide.

In the above described experiments, materials and methods are providedin more detail below for reference. With regard to cells, tissues, andviruses, Vero E6 cells were purchased from ATCC and maintained in DMEM(Sigma-Aldrich) supplemented with 10% FetalClonell (HyClone) and 1%Antibiotic-Antimycotic (Gibco). Vero 76 cells (ATCC CRL-1587) weremaintained in MEM supplemented with 2 mM L-glutamine and 5% FBS. Primaryhuman airway epithelium (EpiAirway AIR-100, MatTek Corporation) werecultured for 28 days in transwell inserts by MatTek Corporation. Thecultured tissues were shipped in 24 well plates with agarose embedded inthe basal compartment. Upon arrival, the transwell inserts were removedand placed in 6-well plates with cold Maintenance Media in the basalcompartment; no media added to the apical surface. Cells were incubatedat 37° C. and 5% CO₂ overnight prior to experimental use. All work withlive virus was conducted in two independent Biosafety Level-3 (BSL-3)laboratories, MRI Global's Kansas City facility and the Institute forAntiviral Research at Utah State University, with adherence toestablished safety guidelines. At both laboratories, SARS-CoV-2(USA_WA1/2020) was obtained from the World Reference Center for EmergingViruses and Arboviruses (WRCEVA) and propagated with slightmodifications. At MRI Global, Vero E6 cells were cultured overnight withDMEM (Gibco; 12320-032) supplemented with 10% FBS (Avantor, 97068-085),1% nonessential amino acids (Corning 25-025-CI), and 1%penicillin/streptomycin (VWR 97063-708). To generate master stocks,cells were infected prior to infection with an approximate MOI of 0.08in infection media (as above with 5% FBS). Cells were monitored forcytopathic effects daily and harvested at 4 days post-infection as CPEapproached 100%. Working stocks were cultured in Vero E6 cells withDMEM/F12 media (Gibco; 11330-032) supplemented with 10% FBS and 1%penicillin/streptomycin at an MOI of 0.005. Cells were monitored for CPEand harvested two days post-infection as CPE approached 70%. Cellculture debris was pelleted by centrifugation at 500×g for 5 min andviral stocks were stored at −80° C. Infectivity of viral stocks wasdetermined by TCID₅₀ assay. At Utah State University, SARS-CoV-2(USA_WA1/2020) was propagated in Vero 76 cells. Infection media wasMinimal Essential Media supplemented with 2 mM I-glutamine, 2% FBS, and50 μg/mL gentamicin.

For cytotoxicity assays for human tissues, prior to illumination, themaintenance media was changed on the human tissue transwell inserts.Tissues were illuminated with 385 nm, 405 nm, or 425 nm light andincubated at 37° C. and 5% CO₂ for 3 hours. Cytotoxicity was determinedusing the EpiAirway MTT assay following manufacturer's instructions.Briefly, tissues were rinsed with TEER buffer and placed into pre-warmedMTT reagent and incubated at 37° C. and 5% CO₂ for 90 min. The MTTsolution was extracted with MTT extractant solution by shaking for 2hours. The tissue inserts were discarded and the extractant solution wasadded to a 96 well plate to be read at 570 nm. Extractant solutionserved as the experimental blank and cell viabilities were calculatedagainst plates that were not illuminated.

For cytotoxicity assays for cell lines, Vero E6 cells were incubated inclear 24-well, 48-well, and 96-well plates (Corning) at varying seedingdensities and incubated at 37° C. and 5% CO₂ overnight. Cells wereilluminated with 385 nm, 405 nm, or 425 nm light and incubated at 37° C.and 5% CO₂ for 24 hours post-illumination. After 24 hours, cytotoxicitywas determined using the CellTiterGlo One Solution (Promega) withmodifications. The amount of CellTiterGlo One Solution (“CTG”) wasoptimized in a preliminary experiment. For 24 well plates, 100 μlsolution was used and 60 μl solution was used for 48 and 96 well plates.The cells were placed on an orbital shaker for 2 min and thechemiluminescent signal was stabilized for 10 min before 50 μl of thesolution was added to a black well, black bottom 96-well plates and readusing the CellTiterGlo program on the GloMax (Promega). CellTiterGlo Onesolution served as a blank and cell viabilities were calculated againstplates that were not illuminated.

Cytotoxicity analysis was conducted at 48 hours post-illumination. Cellswere treated for 2 hours with 0.01% neutral red for cytotoxicity. Excessdye was rinsed from cells with PBS. Absorbed dye was eluted from thecells with 50% Sorensen's citrate buffer/50% ethanol for 30 minutes.Buffer was added to 10 wells per replicate. Optical density was measuredat 560 nm and cell viabilities were calculated against cells that werenot illuminated.

Antiviral assays were conducted in separate laboratories withmodifications. At MRI Global, cells were infected with SARS-CoV-2 atmultiplicity of infections (MOI) of 0.01 and 0.001 in triplicate. Atone-hour post-infection, infected cells were illuminated with 425 nmlight at the specified doses. Cell culture supernatants were harvestedat 24 hours and 48 hours post-infection to for TCID₅₀ determination andqPCR analysis. No illumination controls and no virus controls wereincluded as a positive control for viral growth and for cytotoxicity,respectively. Cytotoxicity analysis was conducted at 24 hourspost-illumination as above.

Vero 76 cells were infected with SARS-CoV-2 at MOIs of 0.01 and 0.001.At one-hour post-infection, infected cells were illuminated with 425 nmlight at the specified doses. Cell culture supernatants were harvestedat 48 h post-infection for TCID₅₀ determination. No illuminationcontrols and no virus controls served as a positive control for viralgrowth and for cytotoxicity, respectively. Cytotoxicity analysis wasconducted at 48 hours post-illumination.

Virucidal assays were conducted in parallel in separate laboratories. Atone laboratory, 1 mL solutions containing 10⁵ and 10⁶ TCID₅₀/ml wereilluminated with varying doses of light. The viruses were then titteredon Vero E6 cells in triplicate via TCID₅₀ assay. No illuminationcontrols served as a positive control for viral growth.

At a second laboratory, 1 mL solutions containing 10⁵ and 10⁶ TCID₅₀/mlwere illuminated with varying doses of light. The viruses were thentittered on Vero 76 cells in triplicate via TCID₅₀ assay. Noillumination controls served as a positive control for viral growth.

Viral RNA levels for SARS-CoV-2 samples were determined by quantitativeRT-PCR using the CDC N1 assay. Samples for the RT-PCR reactions werelive virus in culture supernatants without nucleic acid extraction.Primers and probes for the N1 nucleocapsid gene target region weresourced from Integrated DNA Technologies (2019-nCoV CDC RUO Kit, No.10006713). TaqPath 1-step RT-qPCR Master Mix, CG was sourced fromThermoFisher (No. A15299). Reaction volumes and thermal cyclingparameters followed those published in the CDC 2019-Novel Coronavirus(2019-nCoV) Real-Time RT-PCR Diagnostic Panel: Instructions for Use. Forthe RT-PCR reaction, 15 mL of prepared master mix was added to each wellfollowed by 5 mL of each sample, for a final total volume of 20 mL perreaction well. Reactions were run on a Bio-rad CFX real-time PCRinstrument.

TCID₅₀ assays were conducted as follows at both laboratories with slightmodifications. At one laboratory, Vero E6 cells were plated in 96 wellplates at 10,000 cells/well in 0.1 ml/well of complete medium (DMEM/F12with 10% fetal bovine serum and 1× Penicillin/Streptomycin) andincubated overnight in a 37° C., 5% CO₂ humidified incubator. The nextday virus samples were serially diluted into un-supplemented DMEM/F12media at 1:10 dilutions by adding 0.1 ml virus to 0.9 ml diluent,vortexing briefly and repeating until the desired number of dilutionswas achieved. Media was decanted from 96 well plates and 0.1 ml of eachvirus dilution aliquoted into 5 or 8 wells. After 4 days of incubationat 37° C., 5% CO₂, plates were scored for presence of cytopathic effect.TCID₅₀/ml were made using the Reed & Muench method. At the secondlaboratory, cell culture samples were serially diluted and plated onfresh Vero 76 cells in quadruplicate. Plates were visually examined forCPE at 6 days post-infection. Wells were indicated as positive ornegative and virus titers were calculated using the Reed-Muench endpointdilution method.

FIG. 68A is a chart 6800 showing raw luminescence values (RLU) fordifferent seedings of Vero E6 cell densities and various doses of light(J/cm²). FIG. 68B is a chart 6810 showing percent viability for thedifferent seedings of Vero E6 cell densities and various doses of lightof FIG. 68A. FIG. 68B indicates the viability of Vero E6 cells may notreach saturation until cell densities are above 10⁶ cells. RLU andpercent viability based on the various doses of light demonstrate thatboth 100 μL and 200 μL of CellTiter-Glo (CTG) are effective volumes formeasuring cell viability after seeding different Vero E6 cell densities.For FIGS. 68A and 68B, cell densities of 2×10⁵ cells with 100 μL CTG,1×10⁵ cells with 100 μL CTG, 5×10⁴ cells with 100 μL CTG, 2×10⁵ cellswith 200 μL CTG, 1×10⁵ cells with 200 μL CTG, and 5×10⁴ cells with 200μL CTG are represented. FIG. 68C is a chart 6820 comparing RLU versustotal cell number to show that CTG is an effective reagent for measuringcell densities of above 10⁶ Vero E6 cells. RLU values versus total cellnumber are provided for 500 μL CTG, 250 μL CTG, and 100 μL CTG and datais represented as +/−standard deviation.

FIG. 69A is a chart 6900 of TCID₅₀/ml versus dose at 24 hours and 48hours post infection for Calu-3 cells infected with SARS-CoV-2. FIG. 69Bis a chart 6910 showing the percent reduction in SARS-Cov-2 comparedwith percent cytotoxicity, for the Calu-3 cells of FIG. 69A. SpecificTCID₅₀/ml values are presented to demonstrate data trends and datavalues relative to on another, the actual values may vary from lab tolab and are not meant to be limiting. For FIG. 69B, the chart lines forpercent reduction in SARS-Cov-2 and percent cytotoxicity are provided asnonlinear regression curves based on the doses illustrated in FIG. 69A.As shown, visible light at 425 nm inhibits viral replication ofSARS-CoV-2 in the human respiratory cell line, Calu-3. The Calu-3 cellswere infected with SARS-CoV-2 at an MOI of 0.1 and exposed to theindicated doses of 425 nm light at 1-hour post-infection. SARS-CoV-2samples were harvested for TCID₅₀ assays at 24-hours and 48-hourspost-infection. Greater than a 99% reduction in virus was observedfollowing a single treatment for doses of 15 J/cm². Percent reduction inSARS-CoV-2 virus as shown in FIG. 69B was calculated for each dose andtimepoint. As previously described, the SI (i.e., selectivity index) maybe defined as ratio of the CC₅₀ to the EC₅₀ for treated cells. As shownin FIG. 69B, 50% percent reduction in SARS-CoV-2 at 24-hours and48-hours post infection are indicated at relatively low dose values. Inthis regard, the doses of light that inhibit viral replication have adesirable selectivity index (SI) values of greater than 100 twenty-fourhours post infection and greater than 25 when factoring in the cellviability of Calu-3 cells not infected with virus.

FIG. 70A is a chart 7000 illustrating percent reduction in SARS-CoV-2replication versus percent cell cytotoxicity for Vero E6 cells infectedwith a MOI of 0.01. FIG. 70B is a chart 7010 illustrating percentreduction in SARS-CoV-2 replication versus percent cell cytotoxicity forVero E6 cells infected with a MOI of 0.001. In both FIGS. 70A and 70B,the indicated doses of light were applied at 1-hour post infection anddose responses were determined at 24-hours post infection. The doseswere administered by application of 425 nm light with an irradiance of50 mW/cm² for times of 2.5 minutes (for 7.5 J/cm²), 5 minutes (for 15J/cm²), 10 minutes (for 30 J/cm²), 15 minutes (for 45 J/cm²), and 20mins (for 60 J/cm²). Consistent with previously presented charts,similar trends are observed for dose-dependent effects of 425 nm bluelight on SARS-CoV-2 replication for both MOI values. The cytotoxicitycurve indicates a CC₅₀ of about 30.2. In FIG. 70A, the percent reductionin SARS-CoV-2 is close to 100% for doses as low as 7.5 J/cm² and thecorresponding nonlinear regression curve has a sharp decrease at or nearthe 0 J/cm² dose. For the purposes of SI calculations, a conservativevalue of 1 was selected for the EC₅₀ value to give a SI value (e.g.,CC₅₀/EC₅₀) of about 30. In FIG. 70B, the percent reduction in SARS-CoV-2is farther away from 100% for the 7.5 J/cm² dose, thereby providing thecorresponding nonlinear regression curve with a decrease toward 0% at adose slightly above the 0 J/cm² dose. In this manner, a value of about3.4 may be indicated for the EC₅₀ value to give a SI value (e.g.,CC₅₀/EC₅₀) of about 9. Due to variability in experiments, slightdifferences in data sets may be expected. In this regard, the resultsillustrated in FIGS. 70A and 70B may be considered as similar and withinnormal experimental variations.

While FIGS. 70A and 70B provide percent reduction in SARS-CoV-2 at thecellular level for determining EC₅₀ values, IC₂₅ values for targettissues are needed to determine suitable LTI treatment values. FIG. 70Cis a chart 7020 representing percent viability at various doses forprimary human tracheal/bronchial tissue from a single donor for 425 nmlight. Tissue viability is determined at 3-hours post-exposure by MTTassay, a measure of cell viability by assessing enzymatic activity ofNAD(P)H-dependent cellular oxidoreductase ability to reduce MTT dye toformazan. From the chart 7020, the IC₂₅ value corresponds to the dosewhere the viability curve is at 75% (e.g., 25% reduction in tissueviability). In FIG. 70C, the IC₂₅ value is about 157, as indicated bythe superimposed dashed lines. In combination with the EC₅₀ values ofFIGS. 70A and 70B, the corresponding LTI values may be determined asabout 157 for FIG. 70A and about 46 for FIG. 70B.

FIGS. 71A-71C repeat the experiments of FIGS. 70A-70C, but with lighthaving a peak wavelength of 450 nm. FIG. 71A is a chart 7100illustrating percent reduction in SARS-CoV-2 replication versus percentcell cytotoxicity for Vero E6 cells infected with a MOI of 0.01. FIG.71B is a chart 7110 illustrating percent reduction in SARS-CoV-2replication versus percent cell cytotoxicity for Vero E6 cells infectedwith a MOI of 0.001. Consistent with previously presented charts,similar trends are observed for dose-dependent effects of 450 nm bluelight on SARS-CoV-2 replication for both MOI values. The cytotoxicitycurves indicate a CC₅₀ of greater than 60 since the curve does notextend to 50% cytotoxicity. In turn, SI values based on CC₅₀ value ofgreater than 60 may also be considered as greater than the particular SIvalues. In FIG. 71A, a value of about 7.2 may be indicated for the EC₅₀value to give a SI value (e.g., CC₅₀/EC₅₀) of greater than 8. In FIG.71B, a value of about 4.1 may be indicated for the EC₅₀ value to give aSI value (e.g., CC₅₀/EC₅₀) of about greater than 15. As before, due tovariability in experiments, slight differences in data sets may beexpected. In this regard, the results illustrated in FIGS. 71A and 71Bmay be considered as similar and within normal experimental variations.

FIG. 71C is a chart 7120 representing percent viability at various dosesfor primary human tracheal/bronchial tissue from a single donor forlight at 450 nm. As with FIG. 70C, tissue viability is determined at3-hours post-exposure by MTT assay. From the chart 7120, the IC₂₅ valuemay be determined at about 330. In combination with the EC₅₀ values ofFIGS. 71A and 71B, the corresponding LTI values may be determined asabout 46 for FIG. 71A and about 80 for FIG. 71B. While FIG. 71C showsabout 63% viability at a dose of 360 J/cm², variability betweenbiological replicates was high at this dose. In this regard, the IC₂₅values may be even greater than the approximated value of 330,indicating very high doses may be administered before significanttoxicity is observed.

FIG. 72 is a table 7200 summarizing the experiments of FIGS. 70A-70C and71A-71C. The higher SI and LTI values for 450 nm light are predominantlya consequence of lower cytotoxicity relative to 425 nm light. Lower EC₅₀values demonstrate more effective virus inhibition at 425 nm, but thiscan be associated with higher cytotoxicity values at lower light dosesthan at 450 nm. Ideally, light therapy may include lower EC₅₀ valueswith CC₅₀ values as high as possible. Different targeted pathogens andtissue types may provide different LTI values. In this regard, LTIvalues according to the present disclosure may be provided at values ofgreater than or equal to 2, or in a range from 2 to 100,000, or in arange from 2 to 1000, or in a range from 2 to 250, depending on theapplication. Considering experimental variances, the exemplary dataprovided for treatment of SARS-CoV-2 with light in a range from 425 nmto 450 nm indicates LTI values in any of the above ranges may beachieved.

Using techniques analogous to those used to above to measure theantiviral activity of 425 to 450 nm light against SARS-CoV-2, theantiviral activity of light at 425 nm against wild-type (WT) andTamiflu-resistant influenza A was investigated. FIG. 73A is a chart 7300showing the titer of WT influenza A virus based on remaining viral loadsfor different initial viral doses after treatment with different dosesof 425 nm light. The initial viral doses were set at 1×10⁴ and 1×10⁵,and the remaining viral load (e.g., number of copies) followingtreatment with light at 425 nm at dosages of 0 J/cm², 60 J/cm², and 120J/cm² is shown. The data demonstrates significant reductions inwild-type influenza A viral loads when either 60 J/cm² or 120 J/cm²doses were administered, with an additional roughly 0.5-log reduction inviral loads observed at the higher dosage.

FIG. 73B is a chart 7310 showing the titer of Tamiflu-resistantinfluenza A virus based on remaining viral load for a single initialviral dose after treatment of different doses of 425 nm light. Theinitial viral dose was set at 1×10⁴, the remaining viral load (e.g.,number of copies) following treatment with light at 425 nm at dosages of0 J/cm², 60 J/cm², and 120 J/cm² is shown. The initial dose is providedat about 1×10⁴, and the remaining viral load (e.g., number of copies)following treatment with light at 425 nm at dosed of 0 J/cm², 30 J/cm²,60 J/cm², 120 J/cm², 180 J/cm², and 240 J/cm² is shown. The data showsan increase in viral load when no light was administered, anddose-dependent reductions in viral loads up to about 180 J/cm², totalinga roughly 2-log reduction in viral load.

FIG. 74A is a chart 7400 showing the TCID₅₀/ml versus energy dose forWT-influenza A treated with light at 425 nm at various doses. The MOIfor the WT-influenza A was provided at 0.01. The selected doses wereprovided at 0 J/cm², 3 J/cm², 7.5 J/cm², 15 J/cm², 30 J/cm², 45 J/cm²,60 J/cm² and 90 J/cm². Results were collected after 24 hours and after48 hours. When no light was applied (e.g., dose of 0 J/cm²), viral loadsincreased to 10³ copies at 24 hours, and to 10⁵ copies at 48 hours. Atdoses between about 7.5 J/cm² and 60 J/cm², a dose-dependent decrease inviral loads was observed at 24 hours, though the virus significantlyrebounded by 48 hours. However, at doses of 90 J/cm², the viral loadssignificantly decreased by 24 hours, and did not significantly increaseat 48 hours. Specific TCID₅₀/ml values are presented to demonstrate datatrends and data values relative to on another, the actual values mayvary from lab to lab and are not meant to be limiting.

FIG. 74B is a chart 7410 showing the percent reduction in viral loads ofWT-influenza A and percent cytotoxicity against the treated cells wheninfluenza A-infected Madin-Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cells were exposedto 425 nm light at various doses. The MOI for the WT-influenza A wasprovided at 0.01. As illustrated, the doses were provided at 0 J/cm²,7.5 J/cm², 15 J/cm², 30 J/cm², 45 J/cm², 60 J/cm² and 90 J/cm². Thereduction in viral loads and the cytotoxicity were monitored at 24 and48 hours post irradiation. Virtually no cytotoxicity was observed at anytime period for any of the doses. The reduction in viral loads was dosedependent, with doses of 45 J/cm², 60 J/cm², and 90 J/cm² demonstratinga nearly complete reduction in viral loads.

FIG. 74C is a chart 7420 that is similar to FIG. 74A, but with astarting MOI of 0.1. In this regard, FIG. 74C illustrates the TCID₅₀ ofcells infected with WT-influenza A and treated with 425 nm light atdoses of 0 J/cm², 3 J/cm², 7.5 J/cm², 15 J/cm², 30 J/cm², 45 J/cm², 60J/cm² and 90 J/cm². Results were collected after 24 hours and after 48hours. Viral loads stayed fairly constant at 24 hours for doses from 0to 15 J/cm² and decreased in a dose dependent manner as the dosesincreased to 90 J/cm². Over the next 24 hours (i.e., a total of 48 hourspost-exposure), the viral loads significantly rebounded at all dosagesother than 90 J/cm².

FIG. 74D is a chart 7430 that is similar to FIG. 74B, but with astarting MOI of 0.1. In this regard, FIG. 74D illustrates the percentreduction in viral loads of WT-influenza A and percent cytotoxicityagainst the treated cells when influenza A-infected Madin-Darby CanineKidney (MDCK) cells were exposed to 425 nm light at various doses. TheMOI for the WT-influenza A was provided at 0.1. As illustrated, thedoses were provided at 0 J/cm², 7.5 J/cm², 15 J/cm², 30 J/cm², 45 J/cm²,60 J/cm² and 90 J/cm². The reduction in viral loads and the cytotoxicitywere monitored at 24 and 48 hours post irradiation. As with FIG. 74B,virtually no cytotoxicity was observed at any time period for any of thedoses and the reduction in viral loads was dose dependent, with doses of45 J/cm², 60 J/cm² and 90 J/cm² demonstrating a high or nearly completereduction in viral loads. Specific TCID₅₀/ml values are presented todemonstrate data trends and data values relative to on another, theactual values may vary from lab to lab and are not meant to be limiting.

As a summary of the findings, therapeutic light treatments can beselected from optimal doses including various combinations ofwavelengths, irradiance, and treatment times as discussed above forvarious viruses, including SARS-CoV-2 and Influenza, among others.Ideally, the phototherapy may induce a dual mechanism of action on thevirus, including damaging the lipid membrane using single oxygen and/ornitric oxide. The treatments demonstrate efficacy both extracellular inthe absence of cells pre-infection, as well as intracellular in thepresence of cells post infection. The antiviral effect can be remarkablyfast. For example, inactivation of the SARS-CoV-2 virus was demonstratedwithin 24 to 48 hours, compared to the course of viral load reductionobserved clinically as the SARS-CoV-2 virus clears the body in untreatedpatients, or even in patients treated with Remdesivir.

It is important to consider the “Light Therapeutic Index,” or “LTI,” aratio of the IC₂₅ and the EC₅₀ values for light that is used on cellsand tissues. Ideally, the light treatment will be effective at killingone or more target viruses at power levels that are not overlycytotoxic. Preferably, the ratio of IC₂₅/EC₅₀ is as high as possible,including greater than 2. Cell systems for each virus have a number ofvariables (e.g. cell density, different cell types for productiveinfection, media, etc.), which makes it hard to have a single LTI forall cell types. Important aspects for evaluating LTI for cell linesacross all viruses, particularly for respiratory viruses, includeevaluating the types of human tissue these viruses are likely to infect,such as EpiAirway from both large airway (AIR-100) and nasal (NAS-100)tissues. EpiAirway is a ready-to-use, 3D mucociliary tissue modelconsisting of normal, human-derived tracheal/bronchial epithelial cells,also available as a co-culture system with normal human stromalfibroblasts (EpiAirwayFT). A reduction as large as 75-fold is observedafter a 2.5 min treatment dose at 50 mW/cm². The light therapy showssignificant antiviral activity post infection, inhibiting about 50% ofviral replication. Additionally, this treatment shows a full loginactivation of virus on WT-Influenza A at doses of greater than 8.5J/cm². A dose of 8.5 J/cm² was a dose that provided an IC₅₀ againstinfluenza post infection. In this regard, doses of less than 10 J/cm²can provide a multi-pathogenic treatment that can eliminate differentviruses via one or more separate mechanisms. In a particular example, amulti-pathogenic treatment of 425 nm light for 5 minutes and anirradiance of 50 mW/cm² may be effective for treating both SARS-CoV-2and Influenza A. Additionally, at doses of around 60 J/cm², a greaterthan 2-log reduction in virucidal activity was observed using 425 nmlight with a 20-minute exposure at 50 mW/cm².

Considering LTI calculations (e.g., the ratio of IC₂₅/EC₅₀) in antiviralassays for specific tissues for SARS-CoV-2 and Influenza at just 425 nm,it is observed that there are safe and effective doses of light that canbe administered. Because the viral membranes are similar for otherrespiratory viruses, it is believed (based on successful results withSARS-CoV-2 and influenza A) that such treatments can be effectiveagainst all respiratory viruses. When comparing the results with lightat 425 nm with the results at 405 nm or 385 nm, the LTI may be smaller,though it will be expected to vary depending on tissue types.Extrapolating the data obtained herein, the relatively high-poweredlight (e.g., dosed at hundreds of J/cm²) used in the past to disinfectsurfaces cannot safely be used in vivo. Importantly, the dosage of light(J/cm²) had to be sufficiently non-cytotoxic (i.e., would not reduceviability to more than 25% at a dose that resulted in an EC₅₀). Theresulting LTI is expected to vary depending on the type of cell exposedto the phototherapy, but for a given cell type, ideally there is aneffective therapeutic window, such as an LTI of at least 2, or in arange from 2 to 100,000, or in a range from 2 to 1000, or in a rangefrom 2 to 250, depending on the application. Because SARS-CoV-2,influenza and other viruses have lipid membranes, and part of the methodby which the light kills the viruses is believed to be oxidative damageto these membranes, it is believed that this treatment will also workequally well on other respiratory viruses. Further, the treatmentsdescribed herein may also work on viruses that do not have lipidmembranes (e.g., rhinoviruses that cause most common colds).

Light therapies as disclosed herein may be combined with conventionalpharmaceutical agents, such as antivirals, anticoagulants,anti-inflammatories, and the like, and the antiviral wavelengths can becombined with anti-inflammatory wavelengths to reduce the inflammatorydamage caused by the virus, by the cytokine storm induced by the virus,and/or by the phototherapy at the antiviralNO-producing/NO-releasing/singlet oxygen producing wavelengths.

While the above-described examples are provided in the context of viralapplications, the principles of the present disclosure may also beapplicable for treatment of bacterial infections. There is a currentproblem when treating bacterial respiratory infections, namely, AMR andrecalcitrant lung infections. Antimicrobial resistance has led to manypatients having their lungs infected with bacteria that are resistant tomany common antibiotics. As new antibiotics become developed, bacterialresistance soon follows. One potential solution to this problem would beto use visible light as described herein, at an effective antimicrobialwavelength and dosage, alone or in combination with conventionalantibiotic therapy. While bacteria can develop resistance againstantibiotics, it is more difficult for them to develop resistance toantimicrobial therapy using visible light. The potential uses arefar-reaching; so long as the light is delivered in a safe, therapeuticdosage, patients can be effectively treated for a number of respiratorymicrobial infections, such as tuberculosis, Mycobacterium avium complex,and the like, and specifically including those caused by spore-formingbacteria. Bacterial infections caused by spore-forming bacteria can beparticularly difficult to treat with conventional antibiotics, becausethe antibiotics only kill bacteria when they are not in spore form. Asdisclosed herein, certain wavelengths of light are effective at killingspore-forming microbes not only in their active form, but also in theirspore form.

As discussed below, not all light at blue wavelengths are equivalent.Some have higher cytotoxicity to the infected tissues, and some havehigher antimicrobial efficacy. It is useful to consider lighttherapeutic index (LTI), which is a combination of antimicrobialactivity and safety to the exposed tissues. Accordingly, a series ofexperiments were performed to identify suitable wavelengths and dosagelevels to provide safe and effective antibacterial treatments.

For the experiments, bacterial cultures were prepared in 1× phosphatebuffered saline (PBS) or CAMHB at 106 CFU/ml, and 200 μl were aliquotedinto wells of a 96-well microtiter plate. Plates with lids were placedunder a white illumination box, with an LED array placed on top suchthat the light shines down onto bacteria. A fan blew across the devicethough vents in the illumination box to minimize the heat generated bythe LED lights. All setups were done inside a Class II biosafetycabinet. Lights were turned on for a given time, then bacteria weresampled, serially diluted, and plated on MHA for enumeration.

The bacterial strains used in this study were obtained from the AmericanType Culture Collection (ATCC), the CDC-FDA's Antimicrobial ResistanceBank (AR-BANK), from Dr. John LiPuma at the Burkholderia cepaciaResearch Laboratory and Repository (BcRLR) at the University ofMichigan, or from the laboratory of Dr. Mark Schoenfisch at theUniversity of North Carolina Chapel Hill. Strains from the BcRLR wereconfirmed to be Pseudomonas aeruginosa by 16S sequencing, and the otherstrains were confirmed to be P. aeruginosa by growth on Pseudomonasisolation agar. Strains were stored in 20% glycerol stocks at −80° C.Strains were cultured on tryptic soy agar (TSA) at 30° C. or 37° C. for1-2 days, or in cation-adjusted Mueller-Hinton Broth. Streptococcuspyogenes and Haemophilus influenzae were grown using Brain HeartInfusion in a chamber with 5% CO2 packets. All bacteria were incubatedat 37° C. Cytoxicity was measured as described above with respect to theantiviral data.

FIG. 75A is a chart 7500 showing the effectiveness of light at 405, 425,450, and 470 nm and administered with a dose of 58.5 J/cm², in terms ofhours post-exposure, at killing P. aeruginosa (CFU/ml). The data showthat, at a wavelength of 405 nm or 425 nm, a 5-log reduction inconcentration was observed almost instantaneously, and the effect wasmaintained for four hours post-exposure.

FIG. 75B is a chart 7510 showing the effectiveness of light at 405, 425,450, and 470 nm, and administered with a dose of 58.5 J/cm², in terms ofhours post-exposure, at killing S. aeurus (CFU/ml). The data show that,at a wavelength of 405 nm, a 3-log reduction was observed within a halfhour post-exposure, and this increased to a 4-log reduction by 2 hourspost-exposure. At 425 nm, a 2-log reduction in concentration wasobserved within two hours, and this increased to a 4-log reduction by 4hours post-exposure. At 450 nm, a 2-log reduction in concentration wasobserved within three hours, and this increased to a 4-log reduction by4 hours post-exposure. Light at 470 nm was virtually ineffective.

FIG. 76A is a chart 7600 showing the effectiveness of light at 425 nmand administered with doses ranging from 1 to 1000 J/cm² at killing P.aeruginosa (CFU/ml). The data show that, at a wavelength of 425 nm, atdoses of around 60 J/cm², a 4-log reduction in concentration wasobserved, whereas at doses of 100 J/cm² or higher, a 5-log reduction wasobserved.

FIG. 76B is a chart 7610 showing the effectiveness of light at 425 nmand administered with doses ranging from 1 to 1000 J/cm², at killing S.aureus (CFU/ml). The data show that, at a wavelength of 425 nm, at dosesof around 100 J/cm² or more, a 4-log or even a 5-log reduction inconcentration was observed.

FIG. 77A is a chart 7700 showing the effectiveness of light at 405 nmand administered with doses ranging from 1 to 1000 J/cm² at killing P.aeruginosa (CFU/ml). The data show that, at a wavelength of 405 nm, atdoses of around 60 J/cm², a 4-log reduction in concentration wasobserved, whereas at doses of 100 J/cm² or higher, a 5-log reduction wasobserved.

FIG. 77B is a chart 7710 showing the effectiveness of light at 405 nmand administered with doses ranging from 1 to 1000 J/cm² at killing S.aureus (CFU/ml). The data show that, at a wavelength of 405 nm, at dosesof around 100 J/cm² or more, a 5-log reduction in concentration wasobserved.

FIG. 78 is a chart 7800 showing the toxicity of 405 nm and 425 nm lightin primary human aortic endothelial cells (HAEC). Data is providedshowing the effect of light at 405 nm and at 425 nm for a variety ofindicated doses. Even at dosages up to 99 J/cm², the viability of thecells never dropped below 75%, which is a useful threshold fordetermining the safety of a treatment.

FIG. 79A is a chart 7900 showing the bacterial log₁₀ reduction and the %loss of viability of infected AIR-100 tissues following exposure of thetissue to doses of light ranging from 4 to 512 J/cm² at 405 nm. FIG. 79Bis a chart 7910 showing the bacterial log₁₀ reduction and the % loss ofviability of infected AIR-100 tissues following exposure of the tissueto doses of light ranging from 4 to 512 J/cm² at 425 nm. At bothwavelengths (405 nm and 425 nm), notable bacterial log₁₀ reductions arerealized before dose levels reach 25% loss in tissue viability.

In a similar manner, additional data as described above for FIGS. 79Aand 79B were collected and provided as shown in FIGS. 79C-79F. This datademonstrates similar results, thereby confirming identification of safeand effective operating windows. FIG. 79C is a chart 7920 showing thebacterial log₁₀ reduction and the % loss of viability of infectedAIR-100 tissues with gram negative bacteria (e.g., P. aeruginosa)following exposure of the tissue to doses of light ranging from 4 to 512J/cm² at 405 nm. FIG. 79D is a chart 7930 showing the bacterial log₁₀reduction and the % loss of viability of infected AIR-100 tissues withgram negative bacteria (e.g., P. aeruginosa) following exposure of thetissue to doses of light ranging from 4 to 512 J/cm² at 425 nm. FIG. 79Eis a chart 7940 showing the bacterial log₁₀ reduction and the % loss ofviability of infected AIR-100 tissues with gram positive bacteria (e.g.,S. aureus) following exposure of the tissue to doses of light rangingfrom 4 to 512 J/cm² at 405 nm, in a similar manner to FIGS. 79A and 79C.FIG. 79F is a chart 7950 showing the bacterial log₁₀ reduction and the %loss of viability of infected AIR-100 tissues with gram positivebacteria (e.g., S. aureus) following exposure of the tissue to doses oflight ranging from 4 to 512 J/cm² at 425 nm, in a similar manner toFIGS. 79B and 79D.

Most in-vitro assays against bacteria are conducted in a cell-freesystem. There are two classic or industry standard measurements foranti-bacterial activity. The first is related to inhibition of growthand may be quantified in terms of a minimum inhibitory concentration(MIC). The MIC refers to the dose required to completely inhibit growthof bacteria over a 24-hour period in a broth/growth medium. Given therapidly dividing nature of bacteria, any growth leads to highconcentration of microorganism. Stated differently a 50% reduction isnot sufficient for bacteria infections. A second standard is related tobactericidal results and may be quantified in terms of a minimumbactericidal concentration (MBC). The MBC refers to the dose required toresult in a 3 log reduction (e.g., 99.9%) of bacteria. Assays can be runin PBS or broth/growth media and lead to different results and time isalso a variable. In general, for the bacterial experiments describedabove, the MIC dose for a given organism has typically been greater thanthe MBC determined in phosphate buffered saline.

FIGS. 80A-80J are a series of charts showing the effect of light at 405nm and 425 nm, at differing dosage levels, in terms of bacterialsurvival (CFU/ml) vs. dose (J/cm²). The data is provided for both P.aeruginosa and S. aureus bacteria. As illustrated, light at 405 nm isparticularly effective at killing these bacteria, and that light at 425nm is also effective, though either not as effective, or not effectiveat higher doses. MBC values are indicated on the charts of FIGS. 80A-80Jto show 3-log reductions in bacteria.

For the purposes of the present bacterial experiments, LTI calculationsmay be realized from the above-referenced data for providing safe andeffective phototherapeutic treatments. As previously described, LTI maybe determined from the relationship of IC₂₅ divided by the EC₅₀ in thecontext of viruses. For the bacterial data presented in FIGS. 79A-80J,the EC₅₀ values may be replaced or substituted with MBC values asillustrated in FIGS. 80A-80J. The IC₂₅ values may be determined by thehorizontal dashed lines indicating 25% loss of tissue viability in FIGS.79A-79D.

FIG. 81 is a table 8100 summarizing the LTI calculations andcorresponding bactericidal doses for the bacterial experimentsillustrated in FIGS. 79A-80. Notably, the bacterial pathogens areselected as those that are commonly associated with bacterial pneumonia.As illustrated, safe and effective phototherapy treatments for gramnegative P. aeruginosa strains according to this experiment may have LTIvalues in a range from 1.5 to 2.5, thereby indicating LTI values forsuch strains may be provided with values of at least 1.5 or higher. Forgram positive S. aureus strains, the LTI values for this experiment arelower for some of the doses than the P. aeruginosa strains.

FIG. 82 is a chart 8200 showing the effect of 425 nm light at variousdoses at killing P. aeuriginosa (CFU/ml) over a period of time from 0hours, 2 hours, 4 hours, and 22.5 hours. At higher doses of light, suchas 120 J/cm², the bacterial concentration actually decreases over time.Importantly, it is largely irrelevant whether the entire dosage of light(J/cm²) is administered in one dose, or in a combination of smallerdoses, so long as the same amount of light is administered before thebacteria rebound.

FIG. 83 is a chart 8300 showing that whether all of the light (J/cm²) isadministered in one dose or in a series of smaller doses, theantimicrobial effect (average CFU/ml) vs. dose (J/cm²×number oftreatments) is largely the same, at 8 hours and 48 hourspost-administration.

FIG. 84A is a chart 8400 showing the treatment of a variety ofdrug-resistant bacteria (Average CFU/ml) vs. dose (J/cm²) at 24 hourspost-exposure. At doses of 80-120 J/cm² (a combination of two treatmentsof 40, 50, or 60 J/cm²), all of the different drug-resistant bacterialstrains were effectively killed. In this regard, the treatmentsdescribed herein offer advantages over antibiotic treatments, in that a)drug resistance is not observed following treatment, and b) thetreatment can be effective against drug-resistant bacteria. As shown inFIG. 84A, when the treatment was applied to a variety of drug-resistantbacteria, at doses of 80-120 J/cm² in a combination of two treatments of40, 50, or 60 J/cm², all of the different drug-resistant bacterialstrains were effectively killed.

FIG. 84B is a table 8410 summarizing the bacteria species and strainsthat were tested. ATCC refers to American Type Culture Collection. BcRLRrefers to Burkholderia cepacia Research Laboratory and Repositoryprovided by Dr. John LiPuma of the University of Michigan. MDR refers tomultidrug resistant, e.g., resistant to 3 classes of antibiotics. XDRrefers to extremely drug resistant, e.g., resistant to 5 classes ofantibiotics, such as amikacin (AMK), aztreonam (ATM), cefepime (FEP),ceftazidime (CAZ), ceftazidime-avibactam (CZA), ceftolozane-tazobactam(C/T), ciprofloxacin (CIP), colistin (CST), doripenem (DOR), gentamicin(GEN), imipenem (IPM), levofloxacin (LVX), meropenem (MEM),piperacillin-tazobactam (TZP), or tobramycin (TOB).

FIG. 84C is a table 8420 that summarizes the efficacy of twice dailydosing of 425 nm light against difficult-to-treat clinical lungpathogens. Bactericidal doses are in PBS and for a 3-log reductionrelative to dark control samples. MIC doses are in broth with no changein CFU/ml relative to starting CFU/ml. MBC doses are in broth and for a3-log reduction in CFU/ml relative to dark control samples. Accordingly,one can use the treatments described herein to deliver safe andeffective antimicrobial treatments to a number of different bacterialinfections, including those caused by drug-resistant bacteria.Additionally, illumination devices and treatments as disclosed hereinmay provide multiple pathogenic benefits (e.g., for viruses, bacteria,and fungi) with single wavelength and/or multiple wavelength lighttreatments.

While various details of the above described devices and correspondinglight impingement for inducing one or more biological effects have beenprovided, the exemplary devices may include other elements andcharacteristics. In certain embodiments, the devices and systemsdescribed and/or illustrated herein broadly represent any type or formof computing device or system capable of executing computer-readableinstructions, such as those contained within the modules describedherein. In their most basic configuration, these computing device(s) mayeach include at least one memory device and at least one physicalprocessor.

In some examples, the term “memory device” generally refers to any typeor form of volatile or non-volatile storage device or medium capable ofstoring data and/or computer-readable instructions. In one example, amemory device may store, load, and/or maintain one or more of themodules described herein. Examples of memory devices include, withoutlimitation, Random Access Memory (RAM), Read Only Memory (ROM), flashmemory, Hard Disk Drives (HDDs), Solid-State Drives (SSDs), optical diskdrives, caches, variations or combinations of one or more of the same,or any other suitable storage memory.

In some examples, the term “physical processor” generally refers to anytype or form of hardware-implemented processing unit capable ofinterpreting and/or executing computer-readable instructions. In oneexample, a physical processor may access and/or modify one or moremodules stored in the above-described memory device. Examples ofphysical processors include, without limitation, microprocessors,microcontrollers, Central Processing Units (CPUs), Field-ProgrammableGate Arrays (FPGAs) that implement softcore processors,Application-Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs), portions of one ormore of the same, variations or combinations of one or more of the same,or any other suitable physical processor.

Although various modules may be provided as separate elements, themodules described and/or illustrated herein may represent portions of asingle module or application. In addition, in certain embodiments one ormore of these modules may represent one or more software applications orprograms that, when executed by a computing device, may cause thecomputing device to perform one or more tasks. For example, one or moreof the modules described and/or illustrated herein may represent modulesstored and configured to run on one or more of the computing devices orsystems described and/or illustrated herein. One or more of thesemodules may also represent all or portions of one or morespecial-purpose computers configured to perform one or more tasks.

In addition, one or more of the modules described herein may transformdata, physical devices, and/or representations of physical devices fromone form to another. For example, one or more of the modules recitedherein may receive sensor data to be transformed, transform the sensordata, output a result of the transformation to control impingement oflight onto living tissue, use the result of the transformation tocontrol impingement of nitric-oxide modulating light onto living tissue,and/or store the result of the transformation to control impingement ofnitric-oxide modulating light onto living tissue. Additionally oralternatively, one or more of the modules recited herein may transform aprocessor, volatile memory, non-volatile memory, and/or any otherportion of a physical computing device from one form to another byexecuting on the computing device, storing data on the computing device,and/or otherwise interacting with the computing device.

In some embodiments, the term “computer-readable medium” generallyrefers to any form of device, carrier, or medium capable of storing orcarrying computer-readable instructions. Examples of computer-readablemedia include, without limitation, transmission-type media, such ascarrier waves, and non-transitory-type media, such as magnetic-storagemedia (e.g., hard disk drives, tape drives, and floppy disks),optical-storage media (e.g., Compact Disks (CDs), Digital Video Disks(DVDs), and BLU-RAY disks), electronic-storage media (e.g., solid-statedrives and flash media), and other distribution systems.

In addition to the above-described illumination devices, the principlesof the present disclosure are applicable to other devices, and kitsincluding these devices, for treating, preventing, or reducing thebiological activity of microbes present in or near the oral cavityand/or auditory canal (i.e., mouth, nose and ears), as well as thethroat, larynx, pharynx, oropharynx, trachea, and esophagus, aredisclosed.

Corresponding methods for treating or preventing microbial infections inthe oral cavity, nasal cavity and/or ears (auditory canal), as well asthe throat, larynx, pharynx, oropharynx, and esophagus, are alsodisclosed. Where the microbes are microbes that would result inrespiratory infections when they travel from the oral cavity (whichencompasses the nasal cavity) and/or auditory canal to the lungs, thedevices and kits can be used to prevent such respiratory infections.

The methods involve administering light at one or more wavelengths,which are selected to a) treat the actual microbe, b) lower inflammationand/or c) improve vasculature/blood flow. Combinations of wavelengthscan be used, which can, for example, inhibit microbial pathogens via onemechanism, or two or more different mechanisms, or provide a combinationof antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects. Anti-inflammatoryeffects can be particularly useful to treat or prevent nasal congestionand lower the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines in the oralcavity and beyond.

Irradiances of light (mW/cm²) are disclosed at a specific wavelengths ofvisible light for a threshold time over a given duration to yieldtherapeutic dosages (J/cm²) which are effective for inactivating virusor treating viral infections while maintaining the viability ofepithelial tissues. These treatments can be tailored to the particulartissue being treated, as well as to the various fluids in the media,such as blood, sputum, saliva, cervical fluid, and mucous. The totaldosage (J/cm²) to treat an infection can be spread out over multipleadministrations, with each dose applied over seconds or minutes, andwith multiple doses over days or weeks, at individual doses that treatthe infection while minimizing damage to the particular tissue.

The present invention will be better understood with reference to thefollowing definitions. As used herein, the oral cavity includes the partof the mouth behind the gums and teeth that is bounded above by the hardand soft palates and below by the tongue and by the mucous membraneconnecting it with the inner part of the mandible. As used herein, thenasal cavity is the vaulted chamber that lies between the floor of thecranium and the roof of the mouth of higher vertebrates extending fromthe external nares to the pharynx, being enclosed by bone or cartilageand usually incompletely divided into lateral halves by the septum ofthe nose, and having its walls lined with mucous membrane that is richin venous plexuses and ciliated in the lower part which forms thebeginning of the respiratory passage and warms and filters the inhaledair and that is modified as sensory epithelium in the upper olfactorypart. As used herein, the auditory canal is a tube that connects thepinna, or fleshy outer visible part of the ear, and the tympanicmembrane, or eardrum.

While the methods and devices described herein are described asadministering light to the oral cavity, in certain embodiments it isalso intended that light be administered to the throat, esophagus,larynx, pharynx, oropharynx and/or trachea. The oral cavity isillustrated in FIG. 55. As illustrated, the oropharynx is positioned asa middle portion of the throat and may include a portion of the softpalate and a portion that is connected to the oral cavity. Theoropharynx may be a location for initial infection with pathogens,including bacteria, viruses, and fungi. In particular, the oropharynxmay be a location for coronavirus, including the SARS-CoV-2 virus, to bepositioned just after exposure and within a few days of infection. Inthis regard, aspects of the present disclosure, including theabove-described illumination devices, may be configured for providingtherapeutic light doses to the oropharynx for inactivating coronavirusin a cell-free environment at the oropharynx and surrounding tissuesand/or inhibiting replication of coronavirus in a cell-associatedenvironment at the oropharynx and surrounding tissues. With regard toall microorganisms, the principles of the present disclosure may beapplicable for inactivating microorganisms that are in a cell-freeenvironment, inhibiting replication of microorganisms that are in acell-associated environment, upregulating a local immune response,stimulating enzymatic generation of nitric oxide to increase endogenousstores of nitric oxide, releasing nitric oxide from endogenous stores ofnitric oxide, and inducing an anti-inflammatory effect.

In some embodiments, the wavelengths of light activate immune cells ofthe innate and/or adaptive immune responses, including macrophages.

When administering light to arrive at a suitable total dose (J/cm²), itcan be important to provide the therapeutic dosage of light at asuitable combination of a wavelength, irradiance (W/cm²), and exposuretime, and multiple exposures, at these conditions to yield total dose inJ/cm².

The wavelength should be safe to the tissue being irradiated, and theirradiance should be safe to the tissue as well, ideally not heating thetissue to a temperature that is unsafe, and the cumulative exposure timeshould be matched with the desired clinical application. In someembodiments, the device used to administer the light can include a meansfor controlling the amount of light that is administered, such as atimer, actuator, dosimeter, and the like, such that the light does notexceed safe limits.

For example, light is ideally administered at a dosage that is safe andat a dosage that is effective at killing virus or other microbes. Inthis regard, aspects of the present disclosure provide a ratio of theIC₂₅ (the concentration or dose required to reduce tissue livingviability by 25% when compared to control-treated tissues) to the EC₅₀(dose required to kill 50% of the virus or other microbe for thespecific tissue being treated as quantified at a cellular level) that isgreater than or equal to 2. As disclosed herein, the IC₂₅/EC₅₀ ratio orfraction may be referred to as a light therapeutic index (LTI) thatquantifies safe and effective light dosages. In another context, one canconsider, in an in vitro setting, the ratio of the CC₅₀ (concentrationof a therapeutic to reduce cell viability by 50%) to the EC₅₀ fortreated cells (i.e., the Selectivity Index, or “SI”). This ratio willvary depending on the type of cells or tissue that are exposed, forexample, with some cells having differential tolerance to oxidativedamage than other cells.

In some embodiments, the light is administered at UVA (320-400 nm), UVB(280-320 nm), and/or UVC (200-280 nm) wavelengths. Of these, it isbelieved that UVC (wavelengths of 200-280 nm) may be most germicidal.UVC is absorbed by RNA and DNA bases in the microbes and can cause thephotochemical fusion of two adjacent pyrimidines into covalently linkeddimers, which then become non-pairing bases. UVB can also cause theinduction of pyrimidine dimers, but less efficiently than UVC. UVA isweakly absorbed by DNA and RNA, and is much less effective than UVC andUVB in inducing pyrimidine dimers, but is believed to cause additionalgenetic damage through the production of reactive oxygen species, whichcause oxidization of bases and strand breaks.

Nitric oxide is also known to be antimicrobial. The precise mechanismsby which nitric oxide (NO) kills or inhibits the replication of avariety of intracellular pathogens is not completely understood.However, it appears that the cysteine proteases are targeted. NOS-nitrosylates the cysteine residue in the active site of certain viralproteases, inhibiting protease activity and interrupting the viral lifecycle. Since cysteine proteases are critical for virulence orreplication of many viruses, bacteria, and parasites, NO production andrelease can be used to treat microbial infections. Accordingly, in someembodiments, light is administered at wavelengths effective forenhancing endogenous NO production and/or release. These wavelengths arediscussed in more detail below.

In other embodiments, the light is administered at wavelengths thatreduce inflammation. Following a viral infection, if the virus makes itsway to the lungs, subjects are often susceptible to bacterialrespiratory infections, including bronchitis and pneumonia. Secondarybacterial infections can be caused when bacteria that normally inhabitthe nose and throat invade the lungs along a pathway created when thevirus destroyed cells lining the bronchial tubes and lungs. Viralinfections can also cause a “cytokine storm,” where the body's immunesystem over-reacts and rapidly releases immune cells and inflammatorymolecules. This can lead to severe inflammation. A build-up of fluid inthe lungs, particularly the bronchial tubes, increases the chance ofsecondary infections.

Nitric oxide is endogenously stored on a variety of nitrosatedbiochemical structures. Upon receiving the required excitation energy,both nitroso and nitrosyl compounds undergo hemolytic cleavage of S—N,N—N, or M-N bonds to yield free radical nitric oxide. Nitrosothiols andnitrosamines are photoactive and can be phototriggered to release nitricoxide by wavelength specific excitation.

It has been reported that NO may diffuse in mammalian tissue by adistance of up to about 500 microns. In certain embodiments, photons ofa first energy hυ1 may be supplied to the tissue to stimulate enzymaticgeneration of NO to increase endogenous stores of NO in a firstdiffusion zone 1. Photons of a second energy hυ2 may be supplied to thetissue in a region within or overlapping the first diffusion zone 1 totrigger release of NO from endogenous stores, thereby creating a seconddiffusion zone 2. Alternatively, or additionally, photons of a secondenergy hυ2 may be supplied to stimulate enzymatic generation of NO toincrease endogenous stores of NO in the second diffusion zone 2. Photonsof a third energy hυ3 may be supplied to the tissue in a region withinor overlapping the second diffusion zone 2 to trigger release ofendogenous stores, thereby creating a third diffusion zone 3.Alternatively, or additionally, photons of a third energy hυ3 may besupplied to stimulate enzymatic generation of NO to increase endogenousstores of NO in the third diffusion zone 3. In certain embodiments, thefirst, second, and third diffusion zones 1-3 may have different averagedepths relative to an outer epidermal surface. In certain embodiments,the first photon energy hυ1, the second photon energy hυ2, and the thirdphoton energy hυ3 may be supplied at different peak wavelengths, whereindifferent peak wavelengths may penetrate mammalian skin to differentdepths—since longer wavelengths typically provide greater penetrationdepth. In certain embodiments, sequential or simultaneous impingement ofincreasing wavelengths of light may serve to “push” a nitric oxidediffusion zone deeper within mammalian tissue than might otherwise beobtained by using a single (e.g., long) wavelength of light.

Light having a first peak wavelength and a first radiant flux thatstimulates enzymatic generation of nitric oxide to increase endogenousstores of nitric oxide may be referred to herein as endogenous storeincreasing light or ES increasing light. Light having a first peakwavelength and a first radiant flux to release nitric oxide from theendogenous stores may be referred to herein as endogenous storereleasing light or ES releasing light. Light having anti-inflammatoryeffects may be referred to herein as anti-inflammatory light.

In certain embodiments, light at two or three peak wavelengths is used,including one peak wavelength to provide an anti-inflammatory effect, incombination with a peak wavelength of ES releasing light and/or a peakwavelength of ES increasing light. In other embodiments, in place of, orin addition to, ES increasing or ES releasing light, light at one ormore wavelengths in the UVA, UVB, or UVC ranges are used.

Embodiments of the present disclosure may be used to treat a variety ofviral infections. Representative viruses include Betacoronavirus(SARS-COV-2 and MERS-COV), Coronavirus, Picornavirus, influenza virus (Aand B), the common cold, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), adenovirus,parainfluenza, Legionnaire's disease, rhinoviruses, Epstein-Barr virus(EBV) (also known as human herpesvirus 4), and SARS. In addition toviruses associated with respiratory infections, causing bronchitis,sinusitis, and/or pneumonia, the human papilloma virus (HPV) isassociated with certain throat cancers and laryngeal papillomas. Thefollowing is a list of viruses, one or more of which can lead toinfection when virus particles enter the body through the mouth, nose,or ears, and travel to the respiratory system or gastrointestinal tract,or which can cause an infection when they are located in the mouth, noseor ears: Togaviridae, including the genus Alphavirus, examples of whichinclude Chikungunya, Semliki Forest, Eastern equine encephalitis,Venezuelan equine encephalitis, and Western equine encephalitis;Reoviridae, including the genuses Cardiovirus and Reovirus, examples ofwhich include Reo- and Rotaviruses; Poxviridae, including the genusOrthopoxvirus, examples of which include cowpox and Vaccinia;Picornaviridae, including the genuses Enterovirus, Cardiovirus, andRhinovirus, examples of which include Enterovirus 71, Poliovirus Type 1,Poliovirus Type 3, Encephalomyocarditis, and ECHO 12; Phenuiviridae,including the genus Phlebovirus, examples of which include Sandflyfever, Heartland, Punta Tory, ZH501 and MP-12 viruses; Paramyxoviridae,including the genuses Morbillivirus, Respirovirus, and Pneumovirus,examples of which include Measles, Parainfluenza and RSV;Orthomyxoviridae, including the genuses Alphainfluenzavirus andInfluenzavirus B, examples of which include Influenza A and Influenza B;Herpesviridae, including the genus Simplexvirus, of which herpes is anexample, Hantaviridae, including the genus Orthohantavirus, of whichDobrava, Hantaan, Sin Nombre, Andes, and Maporal are examples;Coronaviridae, including the genuses Coronavirus and Betacoronavirus,examples of which include Middle Eastern Respiratory Syndrome(MERS-CoV), Corona, Sudden Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS-CoV), SuddenAcute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), and Covid-19;Caliciviridae, including the genus Norovirus; Arenaviridae, includingthe genus Arenavirus, examples of which include Junin, Tacaribe,Pichinde, and Lymphocytic choriomeningitis; and Adenoviridae, includingthe genus Mastadenovirus, of which adenovirus is an example. The methodsdescribed herein also include treating or preventing the individualviral infections listed above.

Currently, there are 5 recognized orders and 47 families of RNA viruses,and there are also many unassigned species and genera. Related to butdistinct from the RNA viruses are the viroids and the RNA satelliteviruses.

There are several main taxa: levivirus and related viruses,picornaviruses, alphaviruses, flaviviruses, dsRNA viruses, and the -vestrand viruses

Positive strand RNA viruses are the single largest group of RNA viruses,with 30 families. Of these, there are three recognized groups. Thepicorna group (Picornavirata) includes bymoviruses, comoviruses,nepoviruses, nodaviruses, picornaviruses, potyviruses, obemoviruses anda subset of luteoviruses (beet western yellows virus and potato leafrollvirus). The flavi-like group (Flavivirata) includes carmoviruses,dianthoviruses, flaviviruses, pestiviruses, statoviruses, tombusviruses,single-stranded RNA bacteriophages, hepatitis C virus and a subset ofluteoviruses (barley yellow dwarf virus). The alpha-like group(Rubivirata) includes alphaviruses, carlaviruses, furoviruses,hordeiviruses, potexviruses, rubiviruses, tobraviruses, tricornaviruses,tymoviruses, apple chlorotic leaf spot virus, beet yellows virus andhepatitis E virus.

A division of the alpha-like (Sindbis-like) supergroup has beenproposed, with two proposed groups. The ‘altovirus’ group includesalphaviruses, furoviruses, hepatitis E virus, hordeiviruses,tobamoviruses, tobraviruses, tricornaviruses and rubiviruses, and the‘typovirus’ group includes apple chlorotic leaf spot virus,carlaviruses, potexviruses and tymoviruses. There are five groups ofpositive-stranded RNA viruses containing four, three, three, three, andone order(s), respectively. These fourteen orders contain 31 virusfamilies (including 17 families of plant viruses) and 48 genera(including 30 genera of plant viruses). Alphaviruses and flavivirusescan be separated into two families, the Togaviridae and Flaviridae. Thisanalysis also suggests that the dsRNA viruses are not closely related toeach other but instead belong to four additional classes, Birnaviridae,Cystoviridae, Partitiviridae, and Reoviridae, and one additional order(Totiviridae) of one of the classes of positive ssRNA viruses in thesame subphylum as the positive-strand RNA viruses. There are two largeclades: One includes the families Caliciviridae, Flaviviridae, andPicornaviridae and a second that includes the familiesAlphatetraviridae, Birnaviridae, Cystoviridae, Nodaviridae, andPermutotretraviridae. Satellite viruses include Albetovirus, Aumaivirus,Papanivirus, Virtovirus, and Sarthroviridae, which includes the genusMacronovirus. Double-stranded RNA viruses (dsRNA viruses) include twelvefamilies and a number of unassigned genera and species recognized inthis group. The families include Amalgaviridae, Birnaviridae,Chrysoviridae, Cystoviridae, Endornaviridae, Hypoviridae,Megabirnaviridae, Partitiviridae, Picobirnaviridae, Reoviridae, whichincludes Rotavirus, Totiviridae, Quadriviridae. Botybirnavirus is onegenus, and unassigned species include Botrytis porri RNA virus 1,Circulifer tenellus virus 1, Colletotrichum camelliae filamentous virus1, Cucurbit yellows associated virus, Sclerotinia sclerotiorumdebilitation-associated virus, and Spissistilus festinus virus 1.Positive-sense ssRNA viruses (Positive-sense single-stranded RNAviruses) include three orders and 34 families, as well as a number ofunclassified species and genera. The order Nidovirales includes thefamilies Arteriviridae, Coronaviridae, which includes Coronaviruses,such as SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2, Mesoniviridae and Roniviridae. Theorder Picornavirales includes families Dicistroviridae, Iflaviridae,Marnaviridae, Picornaviridae, which includes Poliovirus, Rhinovirus (acommon cold virus), and Hepatitis A virus, Secoviridae, which includesthe subfamily Comovirinae, as well as the genus Bacillariornavirus andthe species Kelp fly virus. The order Tymovirales includes the familiesAlphaflexiviridae, Betaflexiviridae,

Gammaflexiviridae, and Tymoviridae. A number of families are notassigned to any of these orders, and these include Alphatetraviridae,Alvernaviridae, Astroviridae, Barnaviridae, Benyviridae,Botourmiaviridae, Bromoviridae, Caliciviridae, which includes theNorwalk virus (i.e., norovirus), Carmotetraviridae, Closteroviridae,Flaviviridae, which includes Yellow fever virus, West Nile virus,Hepatitis C virus, Dengue fever virus, and Zika virus, Fusariviridae,Hepeviridae, Hypoviridae, Leviviridae, Luteoviridae, which includesBarley yellow dwarf virus, Polycipiviridae, Narnaviridae, Nodaviridae,Permutotetraviridae, Potyviridae, Sarthroviridae, Statovirus,Togaviridae, which includes Rubella virus, Ross River virus, Sindbisvirus, and Chikungunya virus, Tombusviridae, and Virgaviridae.Unassigned genuses include Blunervirus, Cilevirus, Higrevirus,Idaeovirus, Negevirus, Ourmiavirus, Polemovirus, Sinaivirus, andSobemovirus. Unassigned species include Acyrthosiphon pisum virus,Bastrovirus, Blackford virus, Blueberry necrotic ring blotch virus,Cadicistrovirus, Chara australis virus, Extra small virus, Goji berrychlorosis virus, Harmonia axyridis virus 1, Hepelivirus, Jingmen tickvirus, Le Blanc virus, Nedicistrovirus, Nesidiocoris tenuis virus 1,Niflavirus, Nylanderia fulva virus 1, Orsay virus, Osedax japonicus RNAvirus 1, Picalivirus, Planarian secretory cell nidovirus, Plasmoparahalstedii virus, Rosellinia necatrix fusarivirus 1, Santeuil virus.Secalivirus, Solenopsis invicta virus 3, and Wuhan large pig roundwormvirus.

Satellite viruses include the family Sarthroviridae and the genusesAlbetovirus, Aumaivirus, Papanivirus, Virtovirus, and the Chronic beeparalysis virus. Six classes, seven orders and twenty-four families arecurrently recognized in this group. A number of unassigned species andgenera are yet to be classified

Negative-sense ssRNA viruses (Negative-sense single-stranded RNAviruses) are, with the exception of the Hepatitis D virus, within asingle phylum, Negarnaviricota, with two subphyla, Haploviricotina andPolyploviricotina, with four classes, Chunqiuviricetes, Milneviricetes,Monjiviricetes and Yunchangviricetes. The subphylum Polyploviricotinahas two classes, Ellioviricetes and Insthoviricetes.

There are also a number of unassigned species and genera. The PhylumNegarnaviricota includes Subphylum Haploviricotina, ClassChunqiuviricetes, Order Muvirales, Family Qinviridae. The ClassMilneviricetes includes Order Serpentovirales and Family Aspiviridae.The Class Monjiviricetes includes Order Jingchuvirales and FamilyChuviridae. The order Mononegavirales includes families Bornaviridae,which includes the Borna disease virus, Filoviridae, which includes theEbola virus and the Marburg virus, Mymonaviridae, Nyamiviridae,Paramyxoviridae, which includes Measles, Mumps, Nipah, Hendra, and NDV,Pneumoviridae, which RSV and Metapneumovirus, Rhabdoviridae, whichRabies, and Sunviridae, as well as genuses Anphevirus, Arlivirus,Chengtivirus, Crustavirus, and Wastrivirus. Class Yunchangviricetesincludes order Goujianvirales and family Yueviridae. SubphylumPolyploviricotina includes class Ellioviricetes, order Bunyavirales, andthe families Arenaviridae, which includes Lassa virus, Cruliviridae,Feraviridae, Fimoviridae, Hantaviridae, Jonviridae, Nairoviridae,Peribunyaviridae, Phasmaviridae, Phenuiviridae, Tospoviridae, as well asgenus Tilapineviridae.

Class Insthoviricetes includes order Articulavirales and familyAmnoonviridae, which includes the Taastrup virus, and familyOrthomyxoviridae, which includes Influenza viruses. The genus Deltavirusincludes the Hepatitis D virus.

Specific viruses include those associated with infection of mucosalsurfaces of the respiratory tract, including Betacoronavirus (SARS-COV-2and MERS-COV), rhinoviruses, influenza virus (including influenza A andB), parainfluenza,). Generally, orthomyxoviruses and paramyxoviruses canbe treated.

A DNA virus is a virus that has DNA as its genetic material andreplicates using a DNA-dependent DNA polymerase. The nucleic acid isusually double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) but may also be single-stranded DNA(ssDNA). DNA viruses belong to either Group I or Group II of theBaltimore classification system for viruses. Single-stranded DNA isusually expanded to double-stranded in infected cells. Although GroupVII viruses such as hepatitis B contain a DNA genome, they are notconsidered DNA viruses according to the Baltimore classification, butrather reverse transcribing viruses because they replicate through anRNA intermediate. Notable diseases like smallpox, herpes, and thechickenpox are caused by such DNA viruses.

Some have circular genomes (Baculoviridae, Papovaviridae andPolydnaviridae) while others have linear genomes (Adenoviridae,Herpesviridae and some phages). Some families have circularly permutedlinear genomes (phage T4 and some Iridoviridae). Others have lineargenomes with covalently closed ends (Poxviridae and Phycodnaviridae).

Fifteen families are enveloped, including all three families in theorder Herpesvirales and the following families: Ascoviridae,Ampullaviridae, Asfarviridae, Baculoviridae, Fuselloviridae,Globuloviridae, Guttaviridae, Hytrosaviridae, Iridoviridae,Lipothrixviridae, Nimaviridae and Poxviridae.

Of these, species of the order Herpesvirales, which includes the familesAlloherpesviridae, Herpesviridae, which includes human herpesviruses andthe Varicella Zoster, and the families Adenoviridae, which includesviruses which cause human adenovirus infection, and Malacoherpesviridae,infect vertebrates.

Asfarviridae, which includes African swine fever virus, Iridoviridae,Papillomaviridae, Polyomaviridae, which includes Simian virus 40, JCvirus, and BK virus, and Poxviridae, which includes Cowpox virus andsmallpox, infect vertebrates. Anelloviridae and Circoviridae also infectanimals (mammals and birds respectively).

The family Smacoviridae includes a number of single-stranded DNA virusesisolated from the feces of various mammals, and there are 43 species inthis family, which includes six genera, namely, Bovismacovirus,Cosmacovirus, Dragsmacovirus, Drosmacovirus, Huchismacovirus andPorprismacovirus. Circo-like virus Brazil hs1 and hs2 have also beenisolated from human feces. An unrelated group of ssDNA viruses includesthe species bovine stool associated circular virus and chimpanzee stoolassociated circular virus.

Animal viruses include parvovirus-like viruses, which have linearsingle-stranded DNA genomes, but unlike the parvoviruses, the genome isbipartate. This group includes Hepatopancreatic parvo-like virus andLymphoidal parvo-like virus. Parvoviruses have frequently invaded thegerm lines of diverse animal species including mammals.

The human respiratory-associated PSCV-5-like virus has been isolatedfrom the respiratory tract.

Embodiments of the present disclosure may be used to treat a variety ofbacterial infections. Examples of pathogens that can be treated includeHaemophilus influenzae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii,Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus warneri, Staphylococcuslugdunensis, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcus milleri/anginous,Streptococcus pyogenes, vancomycin-resistant enterococci,nontuberculosis mycobacterium, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Burkholderiaspp., Achromobacter xylosoxidans, Pandoraeasputorum, Stenotrophomonasmaltophilia, Alcaligenes xylosoxidans, Haemophilus pittmaniae, Serratiamarcescens, Candida albicans, drug resistant Candida albicans, Candidaglabrata, Candida krusei, Candida guilliermondii, Candida auris, Candidatropicalis, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus terreus, Aspergillusfumigatus, Aspergillus flavus, Morganella morganii, Inquilinus limosus,Ralstonia mannitolilytica, Pandoraea apista, Pandoraea pnomenusa,Pandoraea sputorum, Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus, Bordetellabronchiseptica, Vampirovibrio chlorellavorus, Actinobacter baumanni,Cupriadidus metallidurans, Cupriavidus pauculus, Cupriavidusrespiraculi, Delftia acidivordans, Exophilia dermatitidis,Herbaspirillum frisingense, Herbaspirillum seropedicae, Klebsiellapneumoniae, Pandoraea norimbergensis, Pandoraea pulmonicola,Pseudomonasmendocina, Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes, Pseudomonas putida,Pseudomonas stutzeri, Ralstonia insidiosa, Ralstonia pickettii,Neisseriagonorrhoeae, NDM-1 positive E. coli, Enterobacter cloaca,Vancomycin-resistant E. faecium, Vancomycin-resistant E. faecalis, E.faecium, E. faecalis, Clindamycin-resistant S. agalactiae, S.agalactiae, Bacteroides fragilis, Clostridium difficile, Streptococcuspneumonia, Moraxella catarrhalis, Haemophilus haemolyticus, Haemophilusparainfluenzae, Chlamydophilia pneumoniae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae,Atopobium, Sphingomonas, Saccharibacteria, Leptotrichia, Capnocytophaga,Oribacterium, Aquabacterium, Lachnoanaerobaculum, Campylobacter,Acinetobacter, Agrobacterium; Bordetella; Brevundimonas;Chryseobacterium; Delftia; Enterobacter; Klebsiella; Pandoraea;Pseudomonas; Ralstonia, and Prevotella. Representative non-tuberculosismycobacterium include Mycobacterium abscessus, Mycobacterium avium,Mycobacteriumintracellulare, Mycobacterium fortuitum, Mycobacteriumgordonae, Mycobacterium kansasii, Mycobacterium avium complex,Mycobacteriummarinum, Mycobacterium terrae and Mycobacterium cheloni.Representative Burkholderia spp. include Burkholderia cepacia,Burkholderia cepacia complex, Burkholderia multivorans, Burkholderiacenocepacia, Burkholderia stabilis, Burkholderia vietnamiensis,Burkholderia dolosa, Burkholderia ambifaria, Burkholderia anthina,Burkholderia pyrrocinia, Burkholderia gladioli, Burkholderia ubonensis,Burkholderia arboris, Burkholderia latens, Burkholderia lata,Burkholderia metallica, Burkholderia seminalis, Burkholderiacontaminans, and Burkholderia diffusa. In some embodiments, the bacteriamay be drug resistant, and in some aspects of these embodiments, thebacteria may be multi-drug resistant. For example, the bacteria may beresistant to antibiotics such as amikacin, aztreonam, methicillin,vancomycin, nafcillin, gentamicin, ampicillin, chloramphenicol,doxycycline, colistin, delamanid, pretomanid, clofazimine, bedaquiline,and/or tobramycin. While these bacteria may develop resistance to thesedrugs, they cannot, however, easily develop resistance to thephototherapy-based approaches described herein.

Embodiments of the present disclosure may be used to treat a variety offungal infections. Representative fungal infections that can be treatedinclude Candida albicans, drug resistant Candida albicans, Candidaglabrata, Candida krusei, Candida guilliermondii, Candida auris,Candidatropicalis, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus terreus, Aspergillusfumigatus, and/or Aspergillus flavus.

The light delivery methods described herein can be used to treat,prevent, manage or lessen the severity of symptoms and infectionsassociated with one or more infections in the oral cavity, auditorycanal, throat, larynx, pharynx, oropharynx, trachea, and/or esophagus,and/or to prevent pulmonary infections in a subject.

In some embodiments, the methods can treat an existing microbialinfection with light, where the infection is in mucosal surfaces in theoral cavity, including the nasal cavity, and has not progressed to thelungs. In this respect, while the microbial infection is locally treatedin these areas, it is also a post-infection prophylaxis of lunginfection.

In some aspects, this treatment (or post-infection prophylaxis) operatesvia a nitric oxide dependent mechanism, and in other embodiments, itoperates via a mechanism that is not nitric oxide dependent. In stillother aspects, combinations of wavelengths are used, such that thetreatment involves both types of mechanisms.

In still other embodiments, exposure to light prevents infection fromoccurring, by using light to boost a subject's innate immune response tomicrobial pathogens.

In some aspects, this boosting of the immune system operates via anitric oxide dependent mechanism, and in other embodiments, it operatesvia a mechanism that is not nitric oxide dependent. In still otheraspects, combinations of wavelengths are used, such that the treatmentinvolves both types of mechanisms.

In some embodiments, the disclosed methods involve preventing infectionby directly killing microbial pathogens with light. In theseembodiments, the light may act on the microorganisms and not only thehost.

In still other embodiments, phototherapy is used in combination withantimicrobial agents, as described herein. Depending on the type ofmicrobial infection, this may entail combining phototherapy withantibiotics, antifungals, or antivirals. In some embodiments, thecombination therapy is synergistic, rather than merely additive, as thephototherapeutic approach may render the microbe more susceptible to theantimicrobial compounds.

In some aspects, antimicrobial photodynamic inactivation is performed,using rationally designed photosensitizers combined with visible light,optionally also using potentiation by inorganic salts, such as potassiumiodide. Representative photosensitizers include cationic porphyrins,chlorins, bacteriochlorins, phthalocyanines, phenothiazinium dyes,fullerenes, BODIPY-dyes, as well as some natural products. Specificexamples include meso-tetra (N-methyl-4-pyridyl) porphine tetra tosylate(TMP), toluidineblue O, Photofrin, and methylene blue (MB).Representative wavelengths, photosensitizers, and salts are disclosed,for example, in and Hamblin and A brahamse, Drug Dev Res. 2019;80:48-67.

In other aspects, porphyrins already present within microbial cells areactivated by blue or violet light, and the activation of theseendogenous photoactive porphyrins is effective to eliminate themicrobial cells.

In other aspects, UVC light is used at wavelengths between 200 nm and230 nm that can kill microbial cells without damaging host mammaliancells. These wavelengths can be effective against multidrug resistantbacteria, and the photochemical pathway does not induce resistance.Further, localized infections can be monitored by non-invasivebioluminescence imaging.

In other embodiments, the phototherapy serves to decrease inflammationassociated with infections. In some aspects of these embodiments, inaddition to or in lieu of treating the root cause of the microbialinfection, the treatment provides symptomatic relief. In other aspectsof these embodiments, the phototherapy decreases inflammation caused byviruses as part of their processes to multiply and divide. For example,this can involve inhibiting NF-kB and/or caspase used by Coronavirus toamplify transmission.

In some embodiments, the term “preventing” relates to preventing aninfection from occurring at all. In other embodiments, preventingrelates to post-exposure prophylaxis, also known as post-exposureprevention (PEP), which refers to a preventive medical treatment startedafter exposure to a pathogen, in order to prevent the infection fromoccurring. In the context of respiratory infections, post-exposureprevention refers to preventing a respiratory infection followinginfection of the oral cavity, auditory canal, throat, larynx, pharynx,trachea, and/or esophagus.

The methods involve administering one or more wavelengths of light tothe subject, to the oral cavity, auditory canal, throat, larynx,pharynx, oropharynx, trachea, and/or esophagus. In some embodiments, thewavelengths are antimicrobial. In other embodiments, the wavelengthsreduce inflammation or increase vascularization. Combinations ofwavelengths can be used, and the wavelengths can be administeredserially or simultaneously.

Light can be administered to the auditory canal, oral cavity, includingthe mouth and nasal passages, and/or to the throat, esophagus, larynx,pharynx, oropharynx, and trachea, and combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, UVC light is used to treat or prevent microbialinfections, including those caused by viruses such as coronavirus. Theentire range from 200 to 400 nm may be effective. In other embodiments,UVB and/or UVA light is used. The wavelength from around 400 to around430 nm is also effective against both viruses and bacteria. Further, asdiscussed herein, wavelengths of light that promote production orrelease of endogenous nitric oxide can be used. These wavelengths may beantimicrobial via a different pathway than the UVA/UVB/UVC wavelengths,and combinations of these wavelengths can be used to provideantimicrobial effects via a combination of pathways.

Certain bacterial infections, and all fungal infections, are associatedwith spores. Because most pharmaceuticals are only active against thebacteria or fungus when it is not in spore form, the treatments musttake place over an extended period of time, so that the spores canbecome active bacteria/fungi, and then be treated with the antimicrobialagents.

Certain wavelengths of light are effective not only at killing activebacteria/fungi, but also against spores. Accordingly, using the methodsdescribed herein, one can lessen the duration of treatment. By way ofexample, treatment of infections such as tuberculosis or NTM(non-tuberculosis mycobacterial infections) takes around 1 year for aneffective treatment, largely because of the continued presence ofspores. The duration of treatment often leads to poor patientcompliance. The methods described herein can be used to kill theseinfections before they travel to the lung, therefore minimizingtreatment time, and long-term exposure to antibiotics.

Examples of pulmonary infections that can be prevented includebronchiectasis infection, pneumonia, valley fever, allergicbronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA), ventilator acquired pneumonia,hospital acquired pneumonia, community acquired pneumonia, ventilatorassociated tracheobronchitis, lower respiratory tract infection,non-tuberculous Mycobacteria, anthrax, legionellosis, pertussis,bronchitis, Bronchiolitis, COPD-associated infection, and post-lungtransplantation. In some cases, pulmonary infections that are preventedwould have resulted from infection by one or more bacterial or fungalpathogens.

Where the pulmonary infections are CF-related pulmonary infections, themethods described herein can be used to prevent, manage, or lessen theseverity of the CF-related pulmonary infection.

The bacterial pathogen can be a gram-positive bacteria or gram-negativebacteria and can include one or more of a bacterial biofilm andplanktonic bacteria.

Light can penetrate and disrupt biofilms, so in embodiments where abacterial biofilm is present, the methods can involve (1) reducing thebacterial biofilm, (2) impairing growth of the bacterial biofilm, and(3) preventing reformation of the bacterial biofilm.

In still other embodiments, a fungal pathogen is present, which caninclude planktonic fungi and/or biofilm fungi.

The methods described herein can be used to prevent, manage or lessenthe severity of the pulmonary infection by one or both of: prevention ofthe infection by the bacterial or fungal pathogen or reduction of thebacterial or fungal pathogen before it can enter the pulmonary system,or to treat or prevent infection of the oral cavity, auditory canal, andthe like, by killing microbes in these tissues.

Representative pathogens that can be killed using the phototherapeuticapproaches described herein include Haemophilus influenzae,Pseudomonasaeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus warneriStaphylococcus lugdunensis, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcusmilleri/anginous, Streptococcus pyogenes, non-tuberculosismycobacterium, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Burkholderia spp.,Achromobacter xylosoxidans, Pandoraeasputorum, Stenotrophomonasmaltophilia, Alcaligenes xylosoxidans, Haemophilus pittmaniae, Serratiamarcescens, Candidia albacans, Candida parapsilosis, Candidaguilliermondii, Morganella morganii, Inquilinus limosus, Ralstoniamannitolilytica, Pandoraea apista, Pandoraea pnomenusa, Pandoraeasputorum, Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus, Bordetellabronchiseptica,Vampirovibrio chlorellavorus, Actinobacter baumanni, Cupriadidusmetallidurans, Cupriavidus pauculus, Cupriavidus respiraculi, Delftiaacidivordans, Exophilia dermatitidis, Herbaspirillum frisingense,Herbaspirillum seropedicae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pandoraeanorimbergensis, Pandoraea pulmonicola, Pseudomonas mendocina,Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes, Pseudomonas putida, Pseudomonas stutzeri,Ralstonia insidiosa, Ralstonia pickettii, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, NDM-1positive E. coli, Enterobacter cloaca, Vancomycin-resistant E. faecium,Vancomycin-resistant E. faecalis, E. faecium, E. faecalis,Clindamycin-resistant S. agalactiae, S. agalactiae, Bacteroidesfragilis, Clostridium difficile, Streptococcus pneumonia, Moraxellacatarrhalis, Haemophilus haemolyticus, Haemophilus parainfluenzae,Chlamydophilia pneumoniae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Atopobium,Sphingomonas, Saccharibacteria, Leptotrichia, Capnocytophaga,Oribacterium, Aquabacterium, Lachnoanaerobaculum, Campylobacter,Acinetobacter; Agrobacterium; Bordetella; Brevundimonas;Chryseobacterium, Delftia; Enterobacter; Klebsiella; Pandoraea;Pseudomonas; Ralstonia, and Prevotella.

Common pulmonary infections include inhalation anthrax, whooping cough(also known as pertussis, and caused by Bordetella pertussis),streptococcus (pneumococcus, Streptococcus pneumoniae), mycobacteria,including mycobacteria tuberculosis and Nontuberculous mycobacterial(NTM) lung disease (Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC), M. abscessus, M.kansasii, M. malmoense, M. szulgai, and M. xenopi).

The phototherapeutic approaches described herein can be combined withconventional antimicrobial therapies. For example, in addition toexposing portions of the respiratory tract to wavelengths of light, forsufficient periods of time and at sufficient energy, to treat or preventthe infections, a patient can also be administered a conventionalantimicrobial agent. Examples of conventional antibiotic agents include,but are not limited to, amikacin, tobramycin, gentamicin, piperacillin,mezlocillin, ticarcillin, imipenem, ciprofloxacin, ceftazidime,aztreonam, ticarcillin-clavulanate, dicloxacillin, amoxicillin,trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, cephalexin, piperacillin-tazobactam,linezolid, daptomycin, vancomycin, metronidazole, clindamycin, colistin,tetracycline, levofloxacin, amoxicillin and clavulanic acid, Augmentin,cloxacillin, dicloxacillin, cefdinir, cefprozil, cefaclor, cefuroxime,erythromycin/sulfisoxazole, erythromycin, clarithromycin, azithromycin,doxycycline, minocycline, tigecycline, imipenem, meropenem,colistimethate/Colistin, methicillin, oxacillin, nafcillin,carbenicillin, azlocillin, piperacillin and tazobactam/Zosyn, cefepime,ethambutol, rifampin, and meropenem.

These antibiotics can also be combined with compounds that bind to oradsorb bacterial toxins, which can be particularly useful wherebacterial toxins result in tissue damage. By way of example, Pseudomonasaeruginosa produces a variety of toxins that lead to cell lysis andtissue damage in the host. Type II toxins include Exotoxin U (Exo U),which degrades the plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells, leading tolysis, phospholipase C (PLC), which damages cellular phospholipidscausing tissue damage and stimulates inflammation, alkaline protease,which leads to tissue damage, cytotoxin, which damages cell membranes ofleukocytes and causes microvascular damage, elastase, which destroyselastin, a protein that is a component of lung tissue, and pyocyanin, agreen to blue water-soluble pigment that catalyzes the formation oftissue-damaging toxic oxygen radicals, impairs ciliary function, andstimulates inflammation. Examples of compounds that bind these toxinsinclude polyphenols and polyanionic polymers.

Antifungals can also be co-administered where the microbe is a fungus.Representative antifungal agents which can be used include fluconazole,posaconazole, viroconazole, itraconazole, echinocandin, amphotericin,and flucytosine. The choice of an appropriate antifungal agent can bemade by a treating physician, and the following is a summary of fungalpulmonary infections and their treatments.

Histoplasmosis is caused by the fungus Histoplasma capsulatum, andconventional treatment includes Itraconazole mild and chronic pulmonarydisease, and Amphotericin B (AmB) with itraconazole formoderate-to-severe histoplasmosis.

Blastomycosis is caused by Blastomyces dermatitidis, and conventionaltreatment includes itraconazole for mild-to-moderate disease andliposomal AmB (L-AmB) followed by itraconazole for life-threateningpulmonary infections.

Sporotrichosis is caused by Sporothrix schenckii, and conventionaltreatment for mild-to-moderate pulmonary disease requires itraconazole,whereas AmB followed by itraconazole is recommended for severe disease.

Coccidioidomycosis is caused by Coccidioides immitis and Coccidioidesposadasii. Immunocompetent infected hosts may not require treatment, butimmunocompromised patients are treated with fluconazole or itraconazole,and, in serious cases with AmB, followed by an azole. Opportunisticfungal infections primarily cause infections in patients who tend to beimmunocompromised through a congenital or acquired disease process.Representative opportunistic infections are discussed below.

Aspergillosis is caused by Aspergilli, and the associated disordersinclude invasive pulmonary aspergillosis (IPA), chronic necrotizingaspergillosis, Aspergilloma, and allergic bronchopulmonaryaspergillosis. Conventional treatments for IPA include voriconazole,lipid-based AmB formulations, echinocandins, and posaconazole.

Cryptococcosis is an opportunistic infection seen in immunocompromisedindividuals, including HIV or AIDS patients and organ-transplantrecipients. Conventional treatments include AmB, with or withoutflucytosine, followed by oral fluconazole. For immunosuppressed orimmunocompetent patients exhibiting mild-to-moderate symptoms,fluconazole therapy is recommended.

Candidiasis can be caused when lung parenchyma become colonized withCandida species. Many critically ill patients are empirically treatedwith broad-spectrum antibiotics. Further clinical deterioration and lackof improvement in these cases suggest the initiation of empiricantifungal therapy. Triazole antifungals and echinocandins exhibitexcellent lung penetration, so, in addition to AmB formulations, can beused to treat pulmonary candidiasis.

Mucormycosis often occurs in patients with diabetes mellitus, organ orhematopoietic stem cell transplant, neutropenia, or malignancy.Pulmonary mucormycosis is primarily observed in patients with apredisposing condition of neutropenia or corticosteroid use. Due tofungal adherence to and damage of endothelial cells, fungalangioinvasion, vessel thrombosis, and successive tissue necrosis,conventional antifungal agents have a difficult time penetrating throughthe lung tissue. For this reason, conventional treatment includesdebridement of necrotic tissue and antifungal therapy, using AmBformulations, posaconazole, and iron chelation therapy

Pneumocystis jirovecii Pneumonia (PCP) occurs in patients with HIV/AIDS,hematologic and solid malignancies, organ transplant, and diseasesrequiring immunosuppressive agents. PCP is extremely resistant to commonantifungal therapy, including AmB formulations and triazole antifungals,but can be treated with Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole. Second-lineagents primaquine plus clindamycin, atovaquone, IV pentamidine, ordapsone.

The antifungal agents identified herein can be co-administered with thephototherapy approaches described herein. However, the use ofphototherapy can lessen the duration of, and/or increase the efficacyof, such antifungal treatments. When the patient has a viral pulmonaryinfection, conventional antiviral agents used for such viruses can beadministered. The selection of antivirals typically depends on the viralinfection being treated. Influenza virus is typically treated withoseltamivir (Tamiflu), zanamivir (Relenza), or peramivir (Rapivab), andRSV with ribavirin (Virazol). Coronavirus is also being treated withTamiflu, ribavirin, certain anti-HIV compounds, and certain interferons,including Betaferon, Alferon, Multiferon, and Wellferon.

The process parameters and sequence of the steps described and/orillustrated herein are given by way of example only and can be varied asdesired. For example, while the steps illustrated and/or describedherein may be shown or discussed in a particular order, these steps donot necessarily need to be performed in the order illustrated ordiscussed. The various exemplary methods described and/or illustratedherein may also omit one or more of the steps described or illustratedherein or include additional steps in addition to those disclosed.

It is contemplated that any of the foregoing aspects, and/or variousseparate aspects and features as described herein, may be combined foradditional advantage. Any of the various embodiments as disclosed hereinmay be combined with one or more other disclosed embodiments unlessindicated to the contrary herein.

Those skilled in the art will recognize improvements and modificationsto the preferred embodiments of the present disclosure. All suchimprovements and modifications are considered within the scope of theconcepts disclosed herein and the claims that follow.

What is claimed is:
 1. An illumination device comprising: at least onelight source arranged to irradiate light on tissue within a body cavity,the light configured to induce a biological effect, the biologicaleffect comprising at least one of altering a concentration of one ormore pathogens within the body cavity and altering growth of the one ormore pathogens within the body cavity; a light guide comprising a hollowcore, wherein the light guide is configured to receive the light fromthe at least one light source and the hollow core defines a direct pathfor at least some of the light to travel entirely through the lightguide without being internally reflected; and a light guide positionerthat is configured to secure the light guide at least partially withinthe body cavity for providing the light to the tissue within the bodycavity, wherein the light guide positioner comprises a mouthpiece thatis configured to engage with one or more surfaces of an oral cavity of auser, and wherein the mouthpiece comprises one or more bite guards forprotecting and securing the light guide.
 2. The illumination device ofclaim 1, wherein the biological effect comprises both altering theconcentration of the one or more pathogens within the body cavity andaltering the growth of the one or more pathogens within the body cavity.3. The illumination device of claim 1, wherein the one or more pathogenscomprise at least one of a virus, a bacteria, and a fungus.
 4. Theillumination device of claim 1, wherein the one or more pathogenscomprise coronaviridae.
 5. The illumination device of claim 4, whereinthe coronaviridae comprises SARS-CoV-2.
 6. The illumination device ofclaim 1, wherein the biological effect further comprises at least one ofupregulating a local immune response within the body cavity, stimulatingat least one of enzymatic generation of nitric oxide to increaseendogenous stores of nitric oxide, and releasing nitric oxide fromendogenous stores of nitric oxide.
 7. The illumination device of claim1, wherein the biological effect comprises inactivating the one or morepathogens that are in a cell-free environment in the body cavity.
 8. Theillumination device of claim 1, wherein the biological effect comprisesinhibiting replication of the one or more pathogens that are in acell-associated environment in the body cavity.
 9. The illuminationdevice of claim 1, further comprising a tongue depressor that isconfigured to depress the user's tongue for providing the light to theoropharynx.
 10. The illumination device of claim 9, wherein the tonguedepressor is formed by a portion of the light guide.
 11. Theillumination device of claim 1, further comprising a housing thatincludes the at least one light source and wherein the light guide andthe light guide positioner are configured to be removably attached tothe housing.
 12. The illumination device of claim 1, further comprisinga port that is configured to at least one of charge the illuminationdevice and access data that is stored in the illumination device. 13.The illumination device of claim 1, wherein the light includes a firstlight characteristic comprising a peak wavelength in a range of 410nanometers (nm) to 440 nm.
 14. The illumination device of claim 1,wherein irradiating the light to the tissue within the body cavitycomprises administering a dose of light in a range from 0.5 joules persquare centimeter (J/cm²) to 100 J/cm².
 15. The illumination device ofclaim 1, wherein irradiating the light to the tissue within the bodycavity comprises administering a dose of light with a light therapeuticindex in a range from 2 to 250, the light therapeutic index beingdefined as a dose concentration that reduces tissue viability by 25%divided by a dose concentration that reduces cellular percentage of theone or more pathogens by 50%.
 16. An illumination device comprising: atleast one light source arranged to irradiate light on tissue of anoropharynx of a user to induce a biological effect, the biologicaleffect comprising at least one of altering a concentration of one ormore pathogens and altering growth of the one or more pathogens; amouthpiece that is configured to engage with one or more surfaces of anoral cavity of the user; and a light guide comprising light-blockingwalls that define boundaries of a hollow light transmissive pathway thatprovides a direct path through the light guide for the light, wherein aportion of the light guide forms a tongue depressor that is configuredto depress the user's tongue for providing the light to the oropharynx.17. The illumination device of claim 16, wherein the biological effectcomprises altering the concentration of the one or more pathogens andaltering the growth of the one or more pathogens.
 18. The illuminationdevice of claim 16, wherein the one or more pathogens comprise at leastone of a virus, a bacteria, and a fungus.
 19. The illumination device ofclaim 16, wherein the one or more pathogens comprise coronaviridae. 20.The illumination device of claim 19, wherein the coronaviridae comprisesSARS-CoV-2.
 21. The illumination device of claim 16, wherein thebiological effect further comprises at least one of upregulating a localimmune response, stimulating at least one of enzymatic generation ofnitric oxide to increase endogenous stores of nitric oxide, andreleasing nitric oxide from endogenous stores of nitric oxide.
 22. Theillumination device of claim 16, wherein the mouthpiece is configured toexpand the oral cavity of the user.
 23. The illumination device of claim16, wherein the mouthpiece is configured to be removably attached to thelight guide.
 24. The illumination device of claim 16, wherein themouthpiece comprises one or more bite guards for protecting and securingthe light guide.
 25. The illumination device of claim 16, wherein thelight comprises a peak wavelength in a range from 410 nanometers (nm) to440 nm and irradiating the light on the tissue of the oropharynxcomprises administering a dose of light in a range from 0.5 joules persquare centimeter (J/cm²) to 100 J/cm².
 26. The illumination device ofclaim 16, wherein the one or more pathogens comprise coronaviridae andirradiating the light on the tissue of the oropharynx comprisesadministering a dose of light with a light therapeutic index in a rangefrom 2 to 250, the light therapeutic index being defined as a doseconcentration that reduces tissue viability by 25% divided by a doseconcentration that reduces cellular percentage of the one or morepathogens by 50%.
 27. The illumination device of claim 16, wherein themouthpiece and the light guide are parts of a single structure.